Novel compositions of cobalamin and related corrinoids, and uses thereof

ABSTRACT

Novel compositions cobalamin and related corrinoids, and uses thereof, are disclosed. The novel compositions include a corrin, a first amino acid having a side chain which includes a basic or positively charged moiety; and a second amino acid with an uncharged side chain which includes at least one heteroatom. The compositions are useful for, inter alia, treatment of cobalamin deficiency.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This applications claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) toco-pending U.S. provisional applications Serial No. 60/025,298, filedSep. 18, 1996, and Serial No. 60/041,750, filed Mar. 28, 1997; thecontents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The cobalamin family comprises vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) andits axial-ligand substituted congeners, such as hydroxocobalamin,methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin, among others. Various cobalaminshave been used effectively for the treatment of conditions resultingfrom cobalamin deficiency, such as hematological abnormalities (e.g.,macrocytosis and megaloblastic anemia) and neurological impairments(ranging from neuropathy and demyelination to confusional states, moodshifts, memory loss, dementia and depression). These classical sequelaeto chronic vitamin B12 deficiency and their treatment are well known(Schneider and Stroinski, Comprehensive B12 (New York: Walter de Gruyter& Co., 1987)). In addition, a number of other diseases or disease stateshave been characterized by some form of cobalamin deficiency; in many ofthese cases cobalamin treatment has been reported to result in anamelioration of symptoms or other improvement in the patients condition.The diseases and disease states studied include anemias of variouskinds, autoimmune conditions, disorders of carbohydrate and lipidmetabolism such as diabetes and atherosclerosis, neuropathies of variousetiologies, mitochondrial disorders and/or deficiencies of cellularbioenergetics, neurodegenerative diseases, mental and psychiatricdisorders, endocrine dysfunctions, infertility and reproductivedisorders, osteoporosis, immunodeficiencies, AIDS and cancer.

[0003] Erythrocyte macrocytosis and macrocytic anemia are oftenconsidered to be the classic hematological signs of cobalamindeficiency, especially when found in conjunction with low hemoglobinvalues. Recently, however, a more complex and varied picture ofcobalamin-deficiency anemia has emerged. For example, a surprisinglyhigh rate of incidence of cobalamin deficiency has been detected insickle cell disease (SCD) patients (Carmel & Johnson, Blood 86 Suppl. 1,644a (1995); Al-Momen, J. Intern. Med. 237, 551-555 (1995)), where thesickle cell anemia may mask a coexisting cobalamin deficiency anemia.The frequent association of folate deficiency with SCD further obscuresand complicates the clinical picture. In particular, investigators haveconcluded that the frequency of cobalamin abnormalities is high enoughto warrant concern about the indiscriminate use of folate supplements inSCD (Carmel & Johnson, op. cit.), since folate administration in theabsence of cobalamin is known to exacerbate the neuropathology ofcobalamin deficiency. Thus, cobalamin supplementation may be especiallydesirable in those SCD patients who are being treated with folate.Furthermore, an increased unsaturated B12 binding capacity has beenunexpectedly found in association with iron deficiency anemia (Rosner &Schreiber, Am. J. Med. Sci. 263, 473-480 (1972)), suggesting anincreased need for vitamin B12 under these circumstances. Delayed plasmaclearance of radiolabeled cobalamin has also been reported in irondeficiency anemia; one explanation proposed for this effect is adecreased uptake of vitamin B12 by tissues as a result of diminishederythropoiesis (Cook & Valberg, Blood 25, 335-344 (1965)). Sinceethrythrocytes appear to play a significant role in delivering cobalaminto tissues (Sorrell et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 24 924-929 (1971)), onemay conclude that any cause of anemia resulting in diminishederythropoeisis and/or decreased red cell numbers can induce a state offunctional cobalamin deficiency. Therefore, cobalamin supplementationmay be useful in treating various forms of anemia and especially intreating those cases associated with coexisting folate deficiency, e.g.,as in thalassemia (Kumar et al., Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 84, 668-671(1985)) or SCD.

[0004] Pernicious anemia, the prototypical disorder of cobalaminabsorption, is generally characterized by gastric atrophy and autoimmuneattack on the parietal cells of the gastric fundus, with consequentdepletion or impairment of intrinsic factor. Suggestively, an increasedprevalence of other autoimmune disorders, such as vitiligo, Graves'disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Type I diabetes, Sjogren's syndromeand rheumatoid arthritis, is found among pernicious anemia patients; theresulting pattern of coexisting autoimmune disease is referred to by theterm polyglandular autoimmune syndrome (Leshin, Am. J. Med. Sci. 290,77-88 (1985)). Many autoimmune disorders, whether components of apolyglandular autoimmune syndrome or not, are associated with abnormalcobalamin metabolism. For example, cases of Sjogren's syndrome,rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis andautoimmune hemolytic anemia have been associated with elevated levels ofapo-transcobalamin II, the unbound form of the B12-binding protein whichcarries cobalamin from serum to cells, thus suggesting an increaseddemand for vitamin B12 in these conditions (Gimsing et al., Scand. J.Rheumatol. 11, 1-4 (1982); Frater-Schroder et al., Lancet 2, 238-239(1978)). Furthermore, cobalamin deficiencies have been noted in bothsynovial fluid (Ono et al., J. Vitaminol. 18, 1-2 (1972)) and serum(Vreugdenhil et al., Ann. Rheum. Dis. 49, 93-98 (1990)) of patients withrheumatoid arthritis, and in the sera of patients with systemic lupuserythematosus (Molad et al., Am. J. Med. 88, 141-144 (1990)), inclusionbody myositis and Sjogren's syndrome (Khraishi et al., J. Rheumatol. 19,306-309 (1992)). A number of these conditions have been shown to beresponsive to cobalamin therapy. For example, methylcobalamin has beenreported efficacious in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (Yamashikiet al., J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 37, 173-182 (1992)). Likewise, some casesof multiple sclerosis are associated with cobalamin deficiency (Reynoldset al., Arch. Neurol. 48, 808-811 (1991); Baig & Qureshi, BiogenicAmines 11, 479-485 (1995)), and improvement in some patients has beennoted upon treatment with cyanocobalamin (Levin, Am. J. Digest. Dis. 22,96-97 (1955)) or methylcobalamin (Kira et al., Intern. Med. 33, 82-86(1994)). Both psoriasis and lupus erythematosus have been successfullytreated with cyanocobalamin (Stingily, Miss. Doctor 3, 222-223 (1955)),while cases of vitiligo have responded to treatment with vitamin B12combined with other vitamins (Montes et al., Cutis 50, 39-42 (1992)).

[0005] Several distinct lines of evidence connect cobalamin deficiencywith diabetes mellitus and other disorders of carbohydrate metabolism.In animals rendered experimentally diabetic, a significant decrease inboth serum and tissue cobalamins has been shown to accompany theinduction of ketosis (Nath & Nath, J. Vitaminol. 15, 174-177 (1969)).Elevated levels of unsaturated B12 binding capacity (UBBC), a measure ofapo-transcobalamins in serum, have been noted in diabetic patients withhyperglycemia, with UBBC normalizing upon restitution of glycemiccontrol (Takahashi et al., Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 25, 13-17 (1994)).Moreover, it has long been known that insulin resistance is common amongpatients presenting with both diabetes and pernicious anemia (Adams,Med. Clin. N. Amer. 8, 1163-1170 (1925); Wright, Clifton Med. Bull. 12,64-67 (1926)), whereas vitamin B12 administration is effective inincreasing insulin sensitivity in some diabetics (Ralli et al., J. Clin.Endocrinol. Metab. 15, 898 (1955)). Likewise, treatment of perniciousanemia patients with cyanocobalamin is known to improve glucosetolerance, an effect attributed to the regulatory influence of vitaminB12 on carbohydrate metabolism (Panzram, Schweiz. Med. Wschr. 91,234-240 (1961)). Vitamin B12 has also been reported effective inrestoring the impaired glucose tolerance induced by thyroid hormone,corticosteroids and by various disease processes (Hadnagy et al., Int.Z. Vitaminforsch. 33, 141-150 (1963)). Since Type II diabetes, obesity,hypertension, coronary artery disease and age-related glucoseintolerance have all been associated with increased insulin resistance(Reaven, Diabetes 37, 1595-1607 (1988); Jackson, Diabetes Care 13,Suppl. 2, 9-19 (1990)), cobalamin supplementation is likely to be ofspecific benefit in these conditions. Alcoholism is another diseaseassociated with impaired glucose tolerance (Dobbins, U.S. Pat. No.4,918,102 (4/17/90)). Tissue levels of vitamin B12 have been reporteddepleted in chronic alcoholism (Kanazawa & Herbert, Lab. Invest. 53,108-110 (1985)), thus offering a rationale for supplementation. Inaddition, patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) often develop impairedglucose tolerance and progress to frank diabetes characterized byperipheral and hepatic insulin resistance (Hardin et al., Diabetes 44,Suppl. 1, 200A (1995)). CF also is known to be associated withaberrations in vitamin B12 absorption and transport (Lindemans et al.,Acta Paediatr. Scand. 74, 795-796 (1985)).

[0006] Atherosclerosis involving renal, peripheral and cardiovascularsites is a major complication of diabetes mellitus; hyperinsulinemia andespecially hyperglycemia are believed to contribute to the developmentof atherosclerosis by altering vascular metabolism and by inducingelevated lipid levels (Kunjathoor et al., J. Clin. Invest. 97, 1767-1773(1996)). As noted above, cobalamin supplementation can help normalizeinsulin sensitivity in diabetic patients and by implication reduce therisk of atherosclerotic involvement. Moreover, vitamin B12 deficiencyhas been shown to induce hypercholesterolemia in various animals (Hsu &Chow, Fed. Proc. 16, 63 (1957)), whereas treatment with vitamin B12 hasbeen shown to attenuate the increase in serum cholesterol in an animalmodel of cholesterol-induced atherosclerosis (Nath & Saikia, Arch.Biochem. Biophys. 79, 216-233 (1959)). Obesity is another consequence ofimpaired glucose tolerance and a frequent concomitant ofatherosclerosis. Animals maintained on a cobalamin-deficient diet withnormal fat content tend to accumulate fat and become obese, whilecontrols receiving vitamin B12 supplements remain normal (Ling & Chow,in Vitamin B12 und Intrinsic Factor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag,1957), 127-132).

[0007] Another factor predisposing to atherosclerosis is theaccumulation of homocysteine in serum (Malinow, J. Intern. Med. 236,603-617 (1994)). Cobalamin deficiency results in the failure of thecobalamin-dependent enzyme methionine synthase to remethylatehomocysteine to methionine, with a consequent accumulation ofhomocysteine. Thus, deranged cobalamin metabolism can induceatherosclerotic lesions via elevated serum homocysteine (McCully, Nutr.Rev. 50, 7-12 (1992)). Conversely, significant reductions in plasmahomocysteine, cholesterol, triglycerides and low density lipoproteinhave been observed in patients with ischemic heart disease treated withcyanocobalamin and other nutrients (Olszewski et al., Atherosclerosis75, 1-6 (1989); Olszewski, ibid. 88, 97-98 (1991)). Similarly, elevatedplasma homocysteine in diabetic patients has been shown to be associatedwith clinical macroangiopathy, with reductions in homocysteine levelsfollowing upon treatment with methylcobalamin (Araki et al.,Atherosclerosis 103, 149-157 (1993)). Cobalamin may be useful in thetreatment of other homocysteine-related vascular occlusive disease, suchas diabetic retinopathy (Neugebauer et al., Lancet 349, 473-474 (1997))and arterial and venous thrombosis (Harpel et al., J. Nutr. 126,1285S-1289S (1996)).

[0008] Diabetic neuropathy has been linked with a form of cobalamindeficiency in peripheral nerve (Tanaka et al., in Diabetic Neuropathy(Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1982), 114-119). Effective treatment ofdiabetic neuropathy has been reported with cyanocobalamin (Sancetta etal., Ann. Intern. Med. 35, 1028-1048 (1951)), methylcobalamin (Yaqub etal., Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 94, 105-111 (1992)), and withhydroxocobalamin in combination with other B vitamins (Sakitama et al.,J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 35, 95-99 (1989)). Methylcobalamin has alsobeen found useful in the treatment of autonomic and peripheralneuropathies in uremic patients undergoing hemodialysis (Taniguchi etal., Clin. Ther. 9, 607-614 (1987)). Moreover, treatment withmethylcobalamin has been shown to attenuate markedly the incidence ofexperimental allergic neuritis, an animal model of Guillain-Barresyndrome and other postinfectious and postvaccinal neuropathies (Inadaet al., in Vitamin B12 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1979),1017-1018). Other peripheral neuropathies which may be associated withcobalamin deficiency and for which cobalamin supplementation has beensuggested include leprous neuropathy and the deficiency neuropathy ofpellagra (Bedi et al., J. Assoc. Physicians India 21, 473-479 (1973)).In addition, some cases of orthostatic hypotension are known to be dueto autonomic neuropathy secondary to cobalamin deficiency (Lossos &Argov, J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 39, 601-602 (1991)). Likewise, instances oftinnitus (Shemesh et al., Am. J. Otolaryngol. 14, 94-99 (1993)) andoptic neuritis (Heaton, Proc. Nutr. Soc. 19, 100-105 (1960)) mayrepresent cases of sensory neuropathy treatable with cobalamin.Remarkably, even neuropathies of a genetic etiology may be treatablewith cobalamin. For example, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)is a genetic disease associated with disturbances in cobalaminmetabolism (Linnell et al., Clin. Sci. 37, 878 (1969)) and also withdefects in mitochondrial DNA and electron transport activity (Rizzo,Neurology 45, 11-16 (1995)). The latter author has proposed thatmitochondrial ATP depletion secondary to vitamin B12 deficiency is ametabolic trigger which can precipitate the symptomatology of LHON, andthat supplementation with cobalamin (e.g., hydroxocobalamin) can enhancethe potential for recovery.

[0009] It has long been recognized that cobalamin plays an importantrole in maintaining mitochondrial integrity (Reddi & Nath, J. Vitaminol.17, 101-104 (1971)). One explanation for this effect involves thefunction of the mitochondrial enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, whichutilizes adenosylcobalamin as coenzyme to catalyze the isomerization ofL-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA. In cobalamin deficiency theactivity of the enzyme is decreased and methylmalonic acid accumulatesin plasma and tissues as a result (Toyoshima et al., J. Nutr. 125,2846-2850 (1995)). Methylmalonic acid is a reversible inhibitor ofsuccinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme which occupies a key locus at theintersection of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the electron transportchain (Toyoshima et al., op. cit.; Dutra et al., J. Inher. Metab. Dis.16, 147-153 (1993)). Defects in other components of the electrontransport chain have also been noted in cobalamin deficiency (Krahenbuhlet al., J. Biol. Chem. 266, 20998-21003 (1991)), and it has beenconcluded that cobalamin deficiency can impair ATP synthesis bydisrupting cellular bioenergetics (Nakai et al., Pediatr. Res. 30, 5-10(1991)). This conclusion is significant not only for the understandingit provides of the pathogenesis of LHON (Rizzo, op. cit.), but alsobecause decreased ATP levels and declining mitochondrial membranepotential have been proposed to initiate induction of apoptosis, orprogrammed cell death (Richter et al., FEBS Lett. 378, 107-110 (1996)).Apoptosis is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of a number ofconditions, including age-related diseases (Wolvetang et al., FEBS Lett.339, 40-44 (1994)) and retroviral infections such those due to felineimmunodeficiency virus (Danave et al., J. Virol. 68, 6745-6750 (1994))and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Macho et al., Blood 86,2481-2487 (1995)). Inhibition of succinate dehydrogenase also results insecondary excitotoxicity which may play a role in hypoxia/ischemia andin neurodegenerative disease in general (Davolio & Greenamyre, Neurosci.Lett. 192, 29-32 (1995); Beal, Ann. Neurol. 38, 357-366 (1995)). All ofthese conditions may be initiated or promoted by cobalamin deficiencyand, conversely, ameliorated by cobalamin therapy. Fibromyalgia(Bengtsson et al., Arth. Rheum. 20, 817-821 (1986)), Reye's syndrome(Partin et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 285, 1339-1343 (1971)) and otherdiseases associated with metabolic, viral, hypoxic or genetic disruptionof cellular bioenergetics (Scholte, J. Bioenerg. Biomembr. 20, 161-191(1988)) may likewise be amenable to treatment with cobalamin.

[0010] The neurotropic properties of cobalamins have led investigatorsto search for cobalamin deficiencies among cases of neurodegenerativedisease. Alzheimer's disease has been characterized by low cobalaminlevels in serum (Karnaze & Carmel, Arch. Intern. Med. 147, 429-431(1987)), in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (Regland et al., Acta Neurol.Scand. 85, 276-281 (1992)), or in both (Ikeda et al., Acta Psychiatr.Scand. 82, 327-329 (1990)). Treatment with vitamin B12 has resulted inreduction of elevated platelet monoamine oxidase activity (Regland etal., Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 240, 288-291 (1991)) inAlzheimer's patients. In addition, patients exhibiting high CSFcobalamin levels after treatment with methylcobalamin have shownimprovements in intellectual function and memory (Ikeda et al., Clin.Ther. 14, 426-437 (1992)) and in mood and sociability (Mitsuyama, inBasic, Clinical, and Therapeutic Aspects of Alzheimer's and Parkinsoi'sDiseases, Vol. 2 (New York: Plenum Press, 1990), 15-18). Down'ssyndrome, a condition which eventually manifests a neuropathologyresembling Alzheimer's disease in most patients over 40 (Ellis et al.,Neurology 24, 101-106 (1974)), is also associated with macrocytosis andlow serum B12 (Howell et al., Scand. J. Haemat. 11, 140-147 (1973)).Increases in IQ among children with Down's syndrome have been reportedupon supplementation with high daily doses of cobalamin combined withother vitamins (Harrell et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 574-578(1981)).

[0011] Other neuropathological conditions which may be associated withlow serum cobalamin include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis andParkinson's disease (Bauer & Heinrich, in Vitamin B12 und IntrinsicFactor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1957), 499-509). Improvementin some cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis has been reported upontreatment with vitamin B12 (Levin, Am. J. Digest. Dis. 22, 96-97 (1955);Krolyunitskaya et al., Zhur. Nevropat. Psikhiat. 56, 319-322 (1956)).Cobalamin deficiency has also been linked with excessive production ofexcitotoxic substances which may play a role in Huntington's disease(Brennan et al., Med. Hypotheses 7, 919-929 (1981)) and otherneuropathologies (Santosh-Kumar et al., Med. Hypotheses 43, 239-244(1994)). Conversely, recent studies have demonstrated a neuroprotectiveeffect of methylcobalamin against the glutamatergic excitotoxicityinduced by hypoxia/ischemia or by glutamate itself (Akaike et al., Eur.J. Pharmacol. 241, 1-6 (1993); Yamamoto et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 281,335-340 (1995)). Glutamatergic excitotoxicity of a related sort has beenimplicated in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis andAlzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases (Lipton & Rosenberg,N. Engl. J. Med. 330, 613-622 (1994)).

[0012] Neuropsychiatric disorders are common in cobalamin deficiency andoften appear with minimal evidence of hematological abnormality; many ofthese conditions improve upon cobalamin administration (Lindenbaum etal., N. Engl. J. Med. 318, 1720-1728 (1988)). Some cases ofschizophrenia have responded to treatment with vitamin B12 (Regland etal., J. Neural Transm. 98, 143-152 (1994)) or with B12 in combinationwith other B vitamins (Joshi et al., J. Orthomol. Psychiatry 9, 35-40(1980)), even in the absence of overt cobalamin deficiency. Anassociation among violent behavior, learning disabilities and low levelsof cobalamin in hair samples has been described (Schrauzer et al., Biol.Tr. Element Res. 34, 161-176 (1992)). Since learning disabilities andaggression are frequent concomitants of attention deficit disorder (ADD)(Hallowell & Ratey, Driven to Distraction (New York: Pantheon Books,1994)), the latter findings suggest a pathogenic role for cobalamindeficiency in ADD, a conclusion supported by reports that vitamin B12administration is of benefit in treating distractibility and inattentionin students (Robin, Semaine hop. Paris 30, 4129-4132 (1954)). Also lowserum cobalamin levels have been found among cases of obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) at a much higher frequency than among controls(Hermesh et al., Acta Psych. Scand. 78, 8-10 (1988)). OCD is believed toresult from dysfunction of central serotonergic mechanisms, and abnormalserotonin metabolism has been found in cobalamin deficiency (Botez etal., Ann. Neurol. 12, 479-484 (1982)). Derangements involving serotoninand other neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine (Deana et al., Int.J. Vit. Nutr. Res. 47, 119-122 (1977)) and GABA (Brennan et al., BrainRes. 219, 186-189 (1981)), may account for many of the mental,psychological and psychiatric disturbances known to accompany cobalamindeficiency. In addition, changes in thyroid function have been reportedto be associated with onset of or recovery from depression (Levitt &Joffe, Biol. Psychiatry 33, 52-53 (1993)). Cobalamin deficiency is alsoknown to be linked with depression; recently, the severity of depressionin an outpatient population has been positively correlated with serumthyroxine and negatively correlated with serum cobalamin, suggesting aninverse relationship between thyroid hormone and vitamin B12 in theregulation of mood (Levitt & Joffe, op. cit.).

[0013] Abnormalities in cobalamin metabolism are often observed in casesof endocrine dysfunction. Serum cobalamin levels are significantly lowerin patients with thyrotoxicosis than in controls, suggesting anincreased metabolic need for cobalamin in the presence of high levels ofthyroid hormone (Alperin et al., Blood 36, 632-641 (1970)). In animalmodels of thyrotoxicosis, cobalamin supplementation has been shown tocounteract the impairment of oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrialintegrity caused by excess thyroid hormone (Kasbekar et al., Biochem. J.72, 374-383 (1959)). A similar mutual antagonism has been demonstratedbetween cobalamin and corticosteroids. Thus, vitamin B12 administrationcounteracts a number of catabolic actions of cortisone in animals (Feng& Meites, Fed. Proc. 14, 47 (1955); Chemnitius, Int. Z. Vitaminforsch.32, 386-391 (1962)), while experimentally induced cobalamin deficiencyresults in adrenocortical hypertrophy and elevated serum corticosteroids(Mgongo et al., Reprod. Nutr. Develop. 24, 845-854 (1984)). The latterstudy also revealed aberrations in gonadal steroid hormone levelsconsequent to cobalamin deficiency, an effect which may be related tothe observed decline in serum B12 among users of estrogen-containingoral contraceptives (Mooij et al., Contraception 44, 277-288 (1991)).

[0014] Infertility in both males (Blair et al., Lancet 1, 49-50 (1968))and females (Menachem et al., Am. J. Hematol. 46, 152 (1994)) has beennoted in conjunction with cobalamin deficiency, with restoration offertility commencing upon treatment with vitamin B12. Moreover, it haslong been known that serum cobalamin levels tend to fall duringpregnancy (Metz et al., Am. J. Hematol. 48, 251-255 (1995)). Recently ithas been suggested that a derangement of maternal homocysteinemetabolism is responsible for some cases of reproductive disorders suchas infertility, recurrent miscarriage and neural tube defects (NTD)(Steegers-Theunissen et al., Fertil. Steril. 60, 1006-1010 (1993)), andthat periconceptional supplementation with vitamin B12 may be requiredfor fully effective prophylaxis of NTD (Mills et al., Lancet 345,149-151 (1995)). Congenital heart defects have been similarly linkedwith homocysteine embryotoxicity (Rosenquist et al., Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 93, 15227-15232 (1996)). An increased incidence of NTD andother malformations is also known to occur when drugs such asanticonvulsants are administered early in pregnancy; animal studies havedemonstrated a role for cobalamin treatment in reducing the incidence ofsuch birth defects (Mann & Gautieri, Lancet 1, 1451-1452 (1973); Elmazaret al., Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 18, 389-394 (1992)).

[0015] A novel application for cobalamin therapy is suggested by thefinding that vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with increased risk ofosteoporosis and bone fractures (Eastell et al., Clin. Sci. 82, 681-685(1992); Goerss et al., J. Bone Miner. Res. 7, 573-579 (1992)). Markedreversal of bone loss upon treatment with a regimen incorporatingcyanocobalamin has been noted (Melton & Kochman, Metabolism 43, 468-469(1994)). Osteoporosis is also known to be induced by administration ofthyroid hormone (Schneider et al., JAMA 271, 1245-1249 (1994)) andcorticosteroids (Sambrook & Jones, Br. J. Rheumatol. 34, 8-12 (1995)).As discussed previously, hormone administration or endocrinehyperfunction can deplete cobalamins and, conversely, cobalamintreatment can normalize metabolic imbalances caused by some hormones. Inview of these facts, cobalamin therapy is likely to be of use inpreventing or reversing hormone-induced osteoporosis as well as theosteoporosis due to cobalamin malabsorption.

[0016] Immunodeficiency associated with cobalamin depletion, such asimpaired antibody response to pneumococcal vaccine, has been studied inotherwise immunocompetent elderly patients with low serum cobalamin(Fata et al., Ann. Intern. Med. 124, 299-304 (1996)). Previous studiesin patients with megaloblastic anemia have shown that immunoglobulindeficiency can resolve upon treatment with vitamin B12 (van Dommelen etal., Acta Med. Scand. 174, 193-200 (1963)). Decreases in suppressor Tlymphocyte numbers among pernicious anemia patients have also beenfound, with one report indicating normalization of CD8+T-cell countsupon administration of hydroxocobalamin (Kubota et al., Am. J. Hematol.24, 221-223 (1987)). Other impairments of immune function observed incobalamin deficiency include defective chemiluminescence andbactericidal activity of neutrophils, with microbicidal activityreturning to normal after treatment with vitamin B12 (Skacel & Chanarin,Br. J. Haematol. 55, 203-215 (1983)) or hydroxocobalamin (Seger et al.,J. Inher. Metab. Dis. 3, 3-9 (1980)). The high incidence of tuberculosisamong a vegetarian Indian population in England has been ascribed todefective macrophage killing secondary to dietary cobalamin deficiency,and it has been hypothesized that chronic cobalamin deficiency mayparticularly predispose individuals to infection by mycobacteria such asthose causing tuberculosis and leprosy (Chanarin & Stephenson, J. Clin.Pathol. 41, 759-762 (1988)). The latter hypothesis may be relevant tothe recently observed increased prevalence of tuberculosis amongvulnerable populations worldwide, especially among those coinfected withHIV (Dolin et al., Bull. World Health Organ. 72, 213-220 (1994)). Thus,there appears to be a specific benefit for cobalamin supplementation inenhancing immunocompetence generally and in the treatment or prophylaxisof mycobacterial infection, of infections due to other microbialpathogens, and of opportunistic infections in AIDS.

[0017] Cobalamin deficiency appears to be common both in AIDS patients(Harriman et al., Arch. Intern. Med. 149, 2039-2041 (1989)) and inpatients with asymptomatic HIV infection (Rule et al., Am. J. Hematol.47, 167-171 (1994)); in either case cobalamin malabsorption or depletionhas been shown to occur at a very early stage in HIV infection. Otherresearchers have established that whereas persistent cobalamindeficiency is associated with disease progression, normalization ofserum cobalamin levels is associated with increased CD4+T-cell countsand improved AIDS index (a composite measure of disease progression)over time (Baum et al., AIDS 9, 1051-1056 (1995)). These findingssuggest that cobalamin deficiency may have a pathogenic role inestablishing HIV infection or in progression to AIDS, a suppositionsupported by the recent discovery that hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalaminand adenosylcobalamin are potent inhibitors of HIV infection in vitro(Weinberg et al., Blood 86, 1281-1287 (1995)). Demyelination, peripheralneuropathy, cognitive and affective changes and dementia are notuncommon consequences of HIV infection, and bear considerableresemblance to the neurological sequelae of chronic vitamin B12deprivation. A relatively high prevalence of impaired B12 absorption ordeficient serum cobalamin levels has been found among HIV-infectedpatients with neuropathy or myelopathy; the majority of those treatedwith cyanocobalamin reported a therapeutic response (Kieburtz et al.Arch. Neurol., 48, 312-314 (1991)). The reversal with vitamin B12 of anapparent advanced AIDS dementia complex has also been reported (Herzlich& Schiano, J. Intern. Med. 233, 495-497 (1993)), while measures ofcognitive functioning have been directly correlated with serum cobalaminlevels in HIV-infected patients (Shor-Posner et al., Arch. Neurol. 52,195-198 (1995)).

[0018] Various cobalamins have shown efficacy in inhibiting tumor cellgrowth in culture, and in treating neoplasms and premalignant lesions inindividuals. Pernicious anemia has been associated with an elevated riskof cancer, including melanoma, multiple myeloma, myeloid and otherleukemias, and oral, pharyngeal and gastric cancers; the declining riskof leukemia and gastric carcinoma from the time of diagnosis ofpernicious anemia is thought to result from therapy with vitamin B12(Brinton et al., Br. J. Cancer 59, 810-813 (1989)). Deficiency ofcobalamin and/or folate is believed to play a procarcinogenic role ingeneral by impairing methionine synthesis, thereby inducing DNAhypomethylation (Herbert, in Essential Nutrients in Carcinogenesis (NewYork: Plenum Press, 1986), 293-311). Thus, dietary deficiency of methyldonors such as methionine and folate has been linked with increased riskof colorectal adenoma (Giovannucci et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 85,875-884 (1993)), and low serum cobalamin and folate levels have beencorrelated with a high incidence of esophageal carcinoma (EC) (Ran etal., Blood 82, Suppl. 1, 532a (1993)). The latter authors have alsoshown that dietary supplementation with cobalamin and folate can correctesophageal dysplasia, the immediate precursor of EC, in cobalamin- andfolate-deficient individuals. Similarly, smoking has been reported toinduce a localized cobalamin deficiency in mucosal tissues (Piyathilakeet al., FASEB J. 2, 713 (1993)), whereas treatment with vitamin B12 andfolate has been shown to improve bronchial squamous metaplasia, aprecursor of lung cancer, among smokers (Heimburger et al., JAMA 259,1525-1530 (1988)). Moreover, when coadministered with folate, cobalaminhas been reported to potentiate fluoropyrimidine antitumor activity(Tisman et al., Clin. Res. 33, 459A (1985)). There are also reports thatcases of neuroblastoma (Bodian, Arch. Dis. Child. 38, 606-619 (1963))and retinoblastoma (Home, Am. J. Ophthalmol. 61, 910-911 (1966)) haveresponded to therapy with vitamin B12. In addition, studies conducted invitro with the coenzyme forms of vitamin B12 have shown a cytotoxiceffect of adenosylcobalamin on fast-growing malignant cell lines, with alesser cytotoxicity induced by methylcobalamin (Tsao et al.,Pathobiology 58, 292-296 (1990)); the cytotoxicity of adenosylcobalaminmay be due to its inhibition of tRNA methylase activity, which is knownto be elevated in tumor tissues (Tarasyavichene et al., Biokhimiya 41,1614-1618 (1976)). These latter results suggest the existence of atleast two distinct and independent mechanisms for the procarcinogeniceffects of cobalamin deficiency.

[0019] Many of the aforementioned conditions associated with cobalamindeficiency—e.g., AIDS, diabetes, atherosclerosis, apoptotic conditions,autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases, neurodegenerativeconditions—are also associated with oxidative stress and/or antioxidantdepletion. Cobalamin deficiency has itself been linked with alterationsin redox status of endogenous antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH),ascorbic acid and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Forexample, elevated levels of oxidized GSH have been found in erythrocytesfrom untreated pernicious anemia patients, with improvement in redoxstatus following upon treatment with vitamin B12 (Jocelyn, Biochem. J.77, 363-368 (1960)). Similarly, an abnormally rapid oxidation of plasmaascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid has been noted in some cases ofpernicious anemia, with the abnormality disappearing after cobalaminsupplementation (Will et al., J. Lab. Clin. Med. 42, 967 (1953); Muellerand Will, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 3, 30-44 (1955)). Other aberrations inascorbic acid metabolism have also been observed in cobalamin deficiency(Cox et al., Clin. Sci. 17, 681-692 (1958)). Decreases in GSH (Register,J. Biol. Chem. 206, 705-709 (1954)), GSH reductase activity (Biswas &Johnson, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 104, 375-380 (1964)) and in the ratioNADH/NAD (Chang et al., Fed. Proc. 16, 163-164 (1957)) have been foundin livers of cobalamin-deficient animals. Thus, vitamin B12 appears toplay a key role in maintaining antioxidants in their reduced stateand/or in facilitating their proper metabolism. This conclusion may begenerally relevant to the treatment of oxidative stress, inasmuch asoxidative stress can induce a functional cobalamin deficiency byoxidatively degrading the cobalamin molecule (e.g., via hydroxyl radicalattack on the corrin ring) to yield toxic or inactive cobalaminanalogues (Nazhat et al., J. Inorgan. Biochem. 36, 75-81 (1989)).

[0020] In particular, cobalamin supplementation alone or in combinationwith GSH may be beneficial in the treatment of oxidative stressassociated with methylmercury intoxication, as has been demonstrated forvarious B complex vitamins and GSH (Sood et al., Cell. Mol. Biol. 39,213-219 (1993)). Cobalamin may also be useful in the treatment ofconditions characterized by both oxidative stress and glutamatergicexcitotoxicity, such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration andBatten's disease, among others (Agostinho et al., FASEB J. 11, 154-165(1997)); a protective effect of cobalamin against glutamatergicexcitotoxicity has been previously discussed (Yamamoto et al., op.cit.). Other conditions of impaired antioxidant homeostasis wherecobalamin supplementation may be of use include cataract, heart disease(Harding et al., Biochem. Soc. Trans. 24, 881-883 (1996)) and alsoprolonged physical exercise (Reid et al., J. Cliln. Invest. 94,2468-2474 (1994); Leeuwenburgh & Ji, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 316,941-949 (1995)). With or without the accompanying administration ofantioxidants, cobalamin may be useful in inhibiting the muscle fatigueinduced by prolonged exercise (Reid et al., op. cit.); indeed, studiesconducted among ultraendurance athletes have revealed metabolicabnormalities suggesting an increased need for vitamin B12 in suchathletes (Singh et al., Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25, 328-334 (1993)).

[0021] In addition to the various uses of cobalamin in treatingconditions associated with cobalamin deficiency, cobalamins areeffective in a number of applications regardless of whether anydeficiency exists. Many of these applications stem from the avidity withwhich cobalamins scavenge, oxidize or otherwise interact with smallbioactive molecules such as cyanide, nitric oxide, superoxide, carbonmonoxide, sulfite and also with halogenated hydrocarbons. For example,hydroxocobalamin has long been known as an effective antidote forcyanide poisoning (Mushett et al., Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 81,234-237 (1952); Zerbe & Wagner, Crit. Care Med. 21, 465-467 (1993)).Recently it has been determined that cobalamins also interact withnitric oxide (Weinberg et al., Blood 84, 118a (1994)), and thathydroxocobalamin in particular attenuates the nitric oxide-dependenthypotension and mortality induced by septic shock (Greenberg et al., J.Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 273, 257-265 (1995)). The latter authors suggestthe use of hydroxocobalamin for treatment of sepsis, endotoxemia,systemic inflammatory response syndrome and other disorders associatedwith excess production of nitric oxide, as well as for adjunctivetherapy when coadministered with inhaled nitric oxide or with nitricoxide donors. In addition to autoimmune disorders, chronic inflammatorydisease, neurodegenerative disease and HIV infection, other conditionsof nitric oxide toxicity which may be mitigated by cobalamins includemigraine (Olesen et al., NeuroReport 4, 1027-1030 (1993)), stroke(Nowicki et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 204, 339-340 (1991)), viralpneumonia (Akaike et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 2448-2453(1996)) and viral and bacterial neurological disease (Zheng et al., J.Virol. 67, 5786-5791 (1993); Koedel et al., Ann. Neurol. 37, 313-323(1995)).

[0022] Similarly, a cobalamin complex with superoxide anion has beendescribed (Bayston et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 91, 2775-2779 (1969)).Superoxide is a reactive oxygen species often coreleased with nitricoxide and implicated with it in the pathogenesis of AIDS and of variousautoimmune, chronic inflammatory, ischemic and neurodegenerativediseases. With or without an accompanying release of nitric oxide,excessive production of superoxide has been linked with numerouspathologies, including infection by viral, bacterial, parasitic andfungal pathogens (Fuchs et al., Med. Hypotheses 36, 60-64 (1991)),induction of muscle wasting in cachexia (Buck & Chojkier, EMBO J. 15,1753-1765 (1996)), photodamage to skin (Darr & Fridovich, J. InvestDermatol. 102, 671-675 (1994)), and the generation of clastogenicfactors in a variety of illnesses. Clastogenic factors are low molecularweight chromosome-damaging agents which cause chromosome aberrations,sister chromatid exchanges, DNA strand breakage and gene mutation; theirproduction is induced by superoxide and they in turn promote theformation of additional superoxide (Fuchs et al., Free Radic. Biol. Med.19, 843-848 (1995)). Clastogenic factors have been implicated in thepathogenesis of gene mutations and/or malignancies associated withexposure to ionizing radiation, viruses, tumor-promoting chemicals,asbestos, herbicides such as paraquat, and with hereditary chromosomebreakage syndromes such as ataxia telangiectasia, Bloom's syndrome andFanconi's anemia (Emerit, Free Radic. Biol. Med. 16, 99-109 (1994)). Allof the conditions cited represent targets for mitigation of superoxidetoxicity by cobalamin.

[0023] Carbon monoxide, sulfites and various halogenated hydrocarbonsalso interact with cobalamin. Cobalamins have been reported to catalyzethe oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide (Bayston & Winfield,J. Catalysis 9, 217-224 (1967); Thauer et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 45,343-349 (1974)) with potentially significant implications for thetreatment of conditions associated with carbon monoxide production orexposure, such as smoking in adults and fetal growth retardation, suddeninfant death syndrome (Hutter & Blair, Med. Hypotheses 46, 1-4 (1996))and other pediatric conditions (Stevenson et al., J. Pediatrics 94,956-958 (1979)). In addition, the neurotoxicity of carbon monoxidepoisoning has been linked with excess nitric oxide production(Ischiropoulos et al., J. Clin. Invest. 97, 2260-2267 (1996)), which canbe attenuated by hydroxocobalamin administration as previously noted.Cyanocobalamin is also known to be effective in the treatment of asthmain general (Crocket, Acta Allergol. 11, 261-268 (1957); Wright, Int.Clin. Nutr. Rev. 9, 185-188 (1989)) and in the suppression of allergicreactions to sulfites in cases of sulfite-sensitive asthma (SSA) inparticular (Anibarro et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 90, 103-109(1992)). The protective effect of vitamin B12 in non-SSA asthma may bedue to the scavenging of nitric oxide by cobalamin, since excessproduction of nitric oxide is known to be involved in asthmaticinflammation (Lundberg et al., Nature Med. 3, 30-31 (1997)). Incontrast, the protective effect of cyanocobalamin in SSA is presumed tobe a consequence of the extracellular nonenzymatic oxidation of sulfitecatalyzed by cobalamins (Jacobsen et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 73,135 (1984)). Finally, vitamin B12 has been shown to mediate thedehalogenation of various halogenated pesticides (Schrauzer & Katz,Bioinorg. Chem. 2, 123-143 (1978)), environmental toxins (Assaf-Anid etal., Appl. Env. Microbiol. 58, 1057-1060 (1992)) and solvents (Krone etal., Biochemistry 30, 2713-2719 (1991)), a result which may account forthe protection afforded by vitamin B12 in carbon tetrachloride-inducedhepatic injury (Kasbekar et al., Biochem. J. 72, 384-389 (1959)).

[0024] Other applications for cobalamins include treatment of dermatitis(Simon, J. Allergy 22, 183-185 (1951)); antagonism of histamine (Ata, inVitamin B12 und Intrinsic Factor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag,1957), 544-553); treatment of oversedation due to intoxication withsedatives and/or alcohol (Newbold, Med. Hypotheses 30, 1-3 (1989));treatment of anorexia nervosa (Korkina et al., Zhur. Nevropat. Psikhiat.89, 82-87 (1989)); relief of fatigue (Ellis & Nasser, Br. J. Nutr. 30,277-283 (1973)); enhancement of choline and acetylcholine biosynthesis(Sasaki et al., Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 43, 635-639 (1992));treatment of sleep disturbances and “jet lag” by re-entrainment ofcircadian rhythms (Honma et al., Experientia 48, 716-720 (1992));treatment of viral conditions such as hepatitis (Kelemen et al., Int. Z.Vitaminforsch. 31, 307-316 (1961)), poliomyelitis (Leroy & Robin,Semaine hop. Paris 31, 1097-1098 (1955)), and herpetic lesions (King, N.Z. Med. J. 105, 135 (1992)); potentiation of immunomodulation whencoadministered with interferon (Medenica et al., Blood 86, Suppl. 1,850a (1995)); pain relief (Surtees & Hughes, Lancet 1, 439-441 (1954);Leuschner, Arzneim.-Forsch./Drug. Res. 42, 114-115 (1992)); treatment ofosteoarthritis (Flynn et al., J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 13, 351-356 (1994));promotion of epithelial cell growth (Ansell, Lancet 2, 994 (1962)), ofwound healing (Findlay, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 82, 492-495 (1953))and of recovery of cardiac muscle in myocardial infarction (Nikolaeva etal., Circ. Res. 35, Suppl. III, 202-213 (1974)); detoxification ofpoisoning caused by heavy metals such as cadmium (Couce et al. J. Inorg.Biochem. 41, 1-6 (1991)), lead (Kleinsorge et al., Zschr. inn. Med. 9,903-906 (1954)) and mercury.(e.g., methylmercury, Sood et al., Cell.Mol. Biol. 39, 213-219 (1993)) and non-metals such as selenium (Chen &Whanger, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 118, 65-72 (1993)); antagonism ofconvulsions and mortality caused by various agents and medications (Ata,in Vitamin B12 und Intrinsic Factor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag,1957), 544-553) and treatment of febrile convulsions (Osifo et al., J.Neurol. Sci. 68, 185-190 (1985)).

[0025] Corrinoids are cobalamin analogs which are used in lieu ofcobalamin by certain microorganisms. Generally, corrinoids differ fromcobalamins only in an alteration of the dimethylbenzimidazole moietyfound in all true cobalamins. Corrinoids are believed to be inactive ineukaryotic cells, and there is evidence that corrinoids may actuallyantagonize some functions of vitamin B12 or otherwise interfere withcobalamin uptake or metabolism in humans and animals. Both cobalaminsand corrinoids may nevertheless be useful in eukaryotes or, e.g., asgrowth factors, prebiotics or essential nutrients for microorganisms ofvalue, such as those employed in fermentation reactions or inenvironmental detoxification, for example.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0026] The invention pertains to a novel composition of cobalamin whichresults in increased cellular uptake of cobalamin. The compositioncomprises a mixture in a physiologically acceptable carrier of threecomponents: cobalamin; one or more amino acids selected from Group I(defined below); and one or more amino acids selected from Group II(defined below). Group I consists of basic or positively charged aminoacids, such as lysine, arginine, (protonated) histidine and ornithine.Group II consists of uncharged amino acids with side chainsincorporating at least one heteroatom (preferably capable ofhydrogen-bonding), such as glutamine, asparagine, tyrosine, tryptophan,histidine, methionine, cysteine, hydroxyproline, serine and threonine.Preferably, the group I amino acid and the group II amino acid aredifferent amino acids. A preferred composition comprises cobalamin,lysine and glutamine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4. The composition ofthe invention can be administered to an animal or an individual toprovide increased cellular uptake of cobalamin. The compositionoptionally includes a microorganism; in preferred embodiments, themicroorganism is capable of catalyzing the formation of acobalamin:amino acid complex. The composition provides an effectivemeans of treating those conditions for which cobalamin is presentlyadministered. For example, the composition can be used to treatcobalamin deficiencies, neuropathies and demyelinating conditions. Thecomposition can also be used in humans and animals to treat sensitivityto sulfites, stimulate choline biosynthesis, enhance immunocompetence,ameliorate nitric oxide and superoxide toxicity, promote healing ofwounds, sores and other lesions, treat osteoarthritis, relieve fatigue,induce analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, detoxify poisoning dueto certain elements, treat convulsions, and adjust circadian rhythms.The composition can also be utilized as an agent in certain biomedicalor biotechnological applications, e.g., as a growth factor foreukaryotic cells in culture. In a further application, the scope of theinvention is intended to encompass compositions of certain cobalaminanalogs (corrinoids) with amino acids selected from Groups I and II asdefined above, with a preferred composition comprising corrinoid, lysineand glutamine in a ratio of about 1:2:4. Compositions involvingcobalamins or corrinoids may be used as growth factors or prebiotics formicroorganisms of value, e.g., those used in fermentation reactions.Such compositions may also be used to promote the environmentaldetoxification of halogenated pesticides, solvents and relatedsubstances by various microorganisms.

[0027] Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a compositioncomprising a mixture of: a corrin selected from the group consisting ofcobalamins and corrinoids; a first amino acid having a side chain whichincludes a basic or positively charged moiety; and a second amino acidwith an uncharged side chain which includes at least one heteroatom,wherein the composition comprises an excess by weight of the corrinrelative to at least one of the first amino acid and the second aminoacid. The corrin can be a cobalamin. The first amino acid can beselected from the group consisting of lysine, arginine, histidine, andornithine. The second amino acid can be selected from the groupconsisting of glutamine, asparagine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine,methionine, cysteine, hydroxyproline, serine and threonine. The corrincan be present in a ratio by weight of at least 2:1 relative to thefirst amino acid. The composition can further include a pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier.

[0028] In another embodiment, the invention provides a compositioncomprising a mixture of a cobalamin; a first amino acid selected fromthe group consisting of lysine, arginine or ornithine; and a secondamino acid selected from the group consisting of glutamine, tyrosine,serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine, wherein the compositioncomprises an excess by weight of the cobalamin relative to at least oneof the first or second amino acid. The first amino acid can be lysineand the second amino acid can be glutamine.

[0029] In another embodiment, the invention provides compositioncomprising a mixture in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier of:cobalamin; lysine, arginine or ornithine; and glutamine, tyrosine,serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine,in a molar ratio of fromabout 1:0.1:0.1 to about 1:100:100. The composition can includecobalamin, lysine and glutamine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4.Alternatively, the composition can include cobalamin, lysine, glutamineand tyrosine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:2:2. The composition canfurther include a microorganism capable of catalyzing the formation of acobalamin:amino acid complex.

[0030] In another aspect, the invention provides a method of increasingcellular uptake of cobalamin in the cells of a subject, comprisingadministering to the subject an active amount of a compositioncomprising a mixture of: cobalamin; lysine, arginine or ornithine; andglutamine, tyrosine, serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine, in amolar ratio of from about 1:0.1:0.1 to about 1:100:100, such thatcellular uptake of cobalamin in the cells of the subject is increased.The composition can include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

[0031] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for treating acondition associated with cobalamin deficiency in a subject. The methodincludes the steps of administering to a subject in need thereof atherapeutically effective amount of a composition comprising a mixturein a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier of: cobalamin; lysine,arginine, histidine or ornithine; and glutamine, tyrosine, serine,threonine, tryptophan or asparagine; in a molar ratio of from about1:0.1:0.1 to about 1:100:100, such that a condition associated withcobalamin deficiency in the subject is treated. The subject can be ahuman, and the condition can be, e.g., Alzheimer's disease or acondition associated with retroviral infection, including HIV infection.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0032] The present invention is directed to a composition of cobalaminor related corrinoid which results in enhanced transport of cobalamin orcorrinoid into cells. As defined herein, the term cobalamin refers tovitamin B12 in any of its biologically active forms, includingcyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin.The term corrinoid refers to any of the cobalamin analogues which may beutilized by microorganisms in lieu of cobalamin. The term “corrin,” asused herein, refers to a cobalamin or corrinoid as described herein.

[0033] To form the composition of the invention, cobalamin or corrinoidis combined with two amino acid components. The term “amino acid” isart-recognized, and, as used herein, refers to both naturally-occurringand synthetic amino acids. Unless otherwise specified, the term “aminoacid” includes all stereoisomers of the amino acid. However, inpreferred embodiments, at least one of the first and second amino acids(more preferably both) are of the L-form, which is the form ofnaturally-occurring amino acids that is most common in nature. The firstamino acid component is selected from the group of amino acids having aside chain which includes a basic or positively charged moiety, referredto herein as Group I, which includes lysine, arginine, histidine (e.g.,in its protonated form), and ornithine. Modified forms ofnaturally-occurring amino acids, e.g., hydroxylysine or homoarginine,are within the scope of the invention, so long as the amino acid sidechain is basic or positively charged. Similarly, synthetic orsynthetically-modified amino acids are also contemplated for use in thecompositions (and methods) of the invention. A particularly preferredfirst amino acid component for forming a composition of the invention islysine.

[0034] A second amino acid component of the composition is selected fromthe group of amino acids with uncharged side chains incorporating atleast one heteroatom, referred to herein as Group II. Thus, Group IIincludes the amino acids glutamine, asparagine, tyrosine, tryptophan,histidine, methionine, cysteine, hydroxyproline, serine and threonine.Modified forms of these amino acids which maintain the neutrality of themolecule and which incorporate at least one heteroatom per side chaincan also be used in the composition, e.g., isoglutamine or DOPA.Glutamine is a preferred second amino acid component for use in thecomposition.

[0035] The composition of the invention is formed by combining acobalamin or corrinoid with at least one amino acid selected from eachof Group I and Group II as described above. It is not necessary thatonly one amino acid from each group be used to form the composition. Forexample, the composition may be formed by combining a cobalamin orcorrinoid with lysine as a first amino acid component and a combinationof glutamine and tyrosine as a second amino acid component. As a furtherexample, lysine and arginine can be included as a first amino acidcomponent and glutamine as a second amino acid component.

[0036] In certain embodiments, a composition of the invention can beformulated by dissolving a mixture of the three components, i.e.,cobalamin or corrinoid, a first amino acid component and a second aminoacid component, in an appropriate vehicle such as distilled (preferablydeoxygenated) water to form a solution. The composition includes anactual weight of cobalamin or corrinoid sufficient to provide atherapeutically or biologically active amount, typically in the rangefrom 1 μg to 1000 μg per dose. In certain embodiments, the cobalamin orcorrinoid can be present in excess (by weight) over the first and/or thesecond amino acid components, e.g., in a ratio by weight of at least 2:1relative to the first amino acid and/or the second amino acid. As anexample, a typical composition may be formed by combining I gram ofcobalamin or corrinoid (e.g., cyanocobalamin), 250 mg of a first aminoacid component (e.g., lysine) and 250 mg of a second amino acidcomponent (e.g., glutamine) in a suitable volume of distilled water(e.g., 1 liter).

[0037] The amount of each component in the composition can also beexpressed in terms of molar ratios. For example, a molar ratio ofcobalamin or corrinoid to the first and second amino acid components canrange from about 1:10⁻⁴:10⁻⁴ to about 1:10⁷:10⁷, more preferably1:10⁻²:10⁻² to about 1:10³:10³. A preferred composition includescobalamin or corrinoid, a first amino acid component and a second aminoacid component in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4. A particularly preferredcomposition comprises cobalamin or corrinoid, lysine and glutamine in amolar ratio of about 1:2:4. Once the components are dissolved in thedistilled water, the solution can be stored under sterile conditions fora period of time sufficient to permit the ingredients to interact, e.g.,three weeks. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, the inventorsbelieve that the cobalamin or corrinoid forms a non-covalent complexwith the first and second amino acid components, and that the complexforms over a period of time. It will be understood that the timerequired can vary depending upon factors such as temperature,concentration of the ingredients, and the like. The complex-formationtime is believed to vary, e.g., in the range of about 30 minutes toabout four weeks. Thus, in one aspect, the invention provides anon-covalent complex of cobalamin or corrinoid, a first amino acidcomponent and a second amino acid component in a molar ratio of about1:2:4. The first and second amino acid components can be of group I andgroup II, respectively, as described above. The resulting compositioncan then be utilized directly, combined with additional ingredients suchas vitamins and minerals (e.g., soluble salts of divalent cations suchas calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc, and ferrous iron),diluted further, and/or crystallized or dried to yield the compositionin solid form.

[0038] In preferred embodiments, at least one of the components (e.g.,cobalamin, Group I or Group II amino acid) is provided in asubstantially purified form. In a particularly preferred embodiment, atleast two components (i.e., at least two of the cobalamin or corrinoid,Group I amino acid, and Group II amino acid) are provided insubstantially purified form. In certain embodiments, the cobalamin orcorrinoid, Group I amino acid, and Group II amino acid, can all beprovided in substantially purified form. A “substantially purified”material is one which has been substantially purified, isolated, orfreed from inactive or interfering substances.

[0039] Additional compositions of the invention can be formulated byadministering the components—i.e., cobalamin or corrinoid, a first aminoacid component and a second amino acid component—to various livingorganisms which can, in preferred embodiments, catalyze the formation ofa cobalamin:amino acid complex. Examples of organisms which can beutilized for this purpose include lactobacilli, cyanobacteria, algae,fungi such as yeasts and mushrooms, and symbiotes of these such askombucha (a fungal/bacterial symbiote); the preceding list is meant tobe illustrative and not exhaustive. The components of the invention canbe added to the media of microorganisms in culture, and themicroorganisms harvested after a period of time sufficient to ensureuptake of the components. For example, the cobalamin or corrinoidcomponents and the first and second amino acid components can be addedto the culture media of cyanobacteria or microalgae such as Chlorella orSpirulina, and the enriched microorganisms harvested for drying, forpreparation of tinctures and extracts, and for other purposes. Asanother example, the components of the invention can be added to milk ormilk products to produce yoghurt after inoculation with lactobacilli orother bacteria; once fermentation is complete (typically 4 to 12 hours)the yoghurt may be consumed, stored or dried (e.g., spray-dried orlyophilized) to yield a dried composition enriched in the cobalamincompositions of the invention. Yoghurt produced in this way may beingested for its therapeutic benefit, and also applied topically (e.g.,in the form of yoghurt masks) for cosmetic purposes and/or skinrejuvenation.

[0040] Similar fermentations can be carried out using the components ofthe invention in combination with inoculation by microorganisms ofvarious fermentable substrates, such as those derived from dairy, soy,grain, fruit, vegetable and other sources. Foods which may be enrichedin this manner include dairy products such as yoghurts, cheeses andbuttermilk, the soy equivalents of these, breads and grain productsprepared with yeasts or sourdough cultures, tempeh (a fermented soy beanproduct), and the like. In each case a quantity of cobalamin orcorrinoid sufficient to provide a therapeutically or biologically activeamount can be added to the fermentable substrate and/or inoculum;typical amounts to be added range from about 1 μg to about 1000 μgcobalamin or corrinoid per seving of bread, yoghurt or other product.

[0041] A further composition of the invention can be formulated bymixing the components—i.e., cobalamin or corrinoid and the first andsecond amino acid components—with dried live microorganisms such aslactobacilli. The resulting mixture can be ingested for therapeuticbenefit, e.g., in capsules or in powdered form added to food. Typicallya unit dose of such a mixture will contain from 50,000 to 50 billionactive microorganisms at time of manufacture, more preferably from500,000 to 10 billion microorganisms, together with cobalamin orcorrinoid in a range of 1 μg to 100 mg, more preferably in a range of 10μg to 10 mg, and with amino acids from Group I and Group II in a rangeof 1 μg to 10 grams each, more preferably in a range of 1 mg to 1 grameach. Prebiotics such as fructooligosaccharides may also be added. In aparticularly preferred composition of the invention, a unit dosecomprises about 500 million each L. acidophilus and L. bifidus, about400 μg of cyanocobalamin, about 200 mg of glutamine and about 50 mg oflysine (as the free base, or, e.g., about 62.5 mg lysine as themonohydrochloride), all of which may be encapsulated together in astandard #0 gelatin capsule. For humans, a therapeutic dosage of thepreferred composition typically ranges from 1 to 10 such unit doses perday; for animal use, the human therapeutic dose may be scaled asrequired in an obvious fashion according to the relative size or bodymass of the animal.

[0042] In general, if microorganisms are administered to the subject,the microorganisms are preferably in a solid form (e.g., dried), and arepreferably in an orally available form.

[0043] When formulated with cobalamin, the composition of the inventionhas demonstrated enhanced transport of cobalamin, e.g., from serum intocells, relative to cobalamin in the absence of the amino acid componentsof the mixture. It is therefore expected that the composition thusformulated will be significantly more effective than cobalamin alone inall applications for which cobalamin has been found or is believed to beuseful, including the treatment of all forms of cobalamin deficiency.

[0044] As is described in detail herein, the compositions of theinvention are useful for treatment of a variety of conditions. As usedherein, the term “subject” refers to a warm-blooded animal, morepreferably a mammal, including humans and non-human mammals includingcats, dogs, mice, rats, horses, sheep, pigs, primates including monkeys,and the like. As further described herein, a subject can be sufferingfrom a recognized cobalamin deficiency, or can be affected by acondition which can be treated by administration of the compositions ofthe invention, even though no cobalamin deficiency has been recognizedor diagnosed in the subject. The term “treating” refers to partial ortotal amelioration of symptoms, partial or total prevention, inhibitionor delay of the development or progress of the condition, partial ortotal prevention, inhibition or delay occurrence of new symptoms (e.g.,by delaying the onset of a condition or symptoms of a condition), andthe like.

[0045] Typical cobalamin deficiency is caused by malnutrition ormalabsorption, and is common among the elderly, among vegetarians, inmalnourished populations generally, and among patients who haveundergone gastrointestinal surgery or who suffer from chronic intestinaldisease. Cobalamin deficiency can also be induced by long term therapywith certain stomach-acid suppressing medications and by exposure tonitrous oxide, a commonly used anesthetic gas. More rarely, cobalamindeficiency may also result from congenital lack of the carrier proteintranscobalamin II (TC II). Whether due to malnutrition, malabsorption,lack of TC II or other causes, untreated cobalamin deficiency may resultin hematological abnormalities such as megaloblastic anemia, and may beassociated with peripheral neuropathy, myelopathy and neuropsychiatricdisorders as well. Subsequent studies have determined the existence ofother types of cobalamin deficiency, variously referred to as atypical,cryptic or subtle, which are occasionally found associated withmalabsorption of food-bound cobalamin. An atypical, cryptic or subtlecobalamin deficiency can exist in an individual despite normal orminimally depressed serum cobalamin concentrations, few or nohematologic abnormalities, and no indication of the absence of intrinsicfactor (Lindenbaum et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 318, 1720-1728 (1988);Carmel et al., J. Lab Clin. Med. 109, 454-463 (1987)). Like typicalcobalamin deficiency, atypical, cryptic or subtle forms of cobalamindeficiency can also be treated by administration of the composition ofthe invention.

[0046] Typical cobalamin deficiency is generally detected by assayingfor low serum levels of cobalamin, detecting hematologic abnormalities(i.e., macrocytosis, hypersegmentation of neutrophil nuclei, andrecognizable megaloblastic changes in the bone marrow), or detecting theabsence of metabolic factors (i.e., using the Schilling test to infer adeficiency of intrinsic factor). A number of assays have been developedwhich can detect atypical, cryptic or subtle cobalamin deficiency. Thedeoxyuridine suppression test (dUST) has been used to detect atypicalcobalamin deficiency in persons with low serum cobalamin levels but noapparent hematological abnormalities (Carmel et al., J. Lab. Clin. Med.109, 454-463 (1987)). Assays for serum levels of methylmalonic acid andtotal homocysteine have also been used to detect cobalamin deficiency,particularly in persons with few or no hematologic abnormalities, normalresults on the Schilling test, or normal or minimally depressed serumcobalamin levels (Lindenbaum et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 318, 1720-1728(1988)). Other tests which can be applied to detect atypical, cryptic orsubtle cobalamin deficiency include measurement of holo-TC II levels(Das et al., J. Nutr. Biochem. 2, 455-464 (1991)), assessment offunctional nutritional status via lymphocyte culture (Shive, J. Int.Acad. Preventive Med. 8, 5-16 (1984)), detection of elevated levels of2-methylcitric acid I and II in serum, urine or CSF (Allen et al.,Metabolism 42, 978-988 (1993)), and measurement of absorption ofradiolabeled food-bound cobalamin by whole-body counting (Miller et al.,Am. J. Hematol. 44, 211-212 (1993)). The composition and method of thepresent invention is directed at all forms of cobalamin deficiency,whether typical, atypical, subtle or cryptic, whether determined bymacrocytosis or other hematological abnormality, by neuropsychiatric orneurological signs, by low cobalamin levels in serum, cerebrospinalfluid, other fluids or various tissues, by congenital, metabolic orother deficiency of individual cobalamin congeners in various fluids andtissues, by impaired absorption of radiolabeled cobalamin, by highlevels of serum, urinary or CSF methylmalonic acid, homocysteine, or2-methylcitric acids I and II, by abnormal responses to the deoxyuridinesuppression test, by elevated levels of apo-transcobalamin II or lowlevels of holo-transcobalamin II, by elevated levels of toxic orinactive cobalamin analogues, by assay of functional nutritional statusof cells in culture, or by any other means. Moreover, the composition ofthe invention is also directed toward the treatment of cobalamindeficiency secondary to all forms of cobalamin malabsorption, whethercaused by hypochlorhydria, gastritis or gastrectomy, by deficiency ofintrinsic factor, autoimmune blockade of intrinsic factor or any otherdefect in the uptake, transport or release of cobalamin by intrinsicfactor, by pancreatic insufficiency or other defect of pancreatic enzymeactivity, by gastroenteropathy of any kind, by ileal resection, bydeficiency, blockade or other defect of intrinsic factor receptors, bydeficiency of transcobalamin II, by any defect in cobalamin uptake,transport or release by transcobalamins, by deficiency, blockade orother defect of transcobalamin receptors, by any defect of lysosomalproteolysis of transcobalamins, or by any other means.

[0047] Another application to which the composition of the invention canbe directed is in the treatment of a number of diseases and diseasestates which have been characterized by or associated with some form ofcobalamin deficiency. As discussed previously, macrocytic anemia is awell known consequence of cobalamin deficiency which is readilytreatable with cobalamin and therefore with the composition of theinvention. Cobalamin deficiency may also be common among sickle celldisease (SCD) patients (Carmel & Johnson, Blood 86, Suppl. 1, 644a(1995); Al-Momen, J. Intern. Med. 237, 551-555 (1995)), where the anemiaof SCD may mask a coexisting cobalamin deficiency anemia and wherehomocysteine levels may be elevated (Lowenthal et al., Blood 88, Suppl.1, 492a (1996)). Another condition unexpectedly associated with aberrantcobalamin metabolism is iron deficiency anemia, where an increasedunsaturated B12 binding capacity (UBBC) has been found (Rosner &Schreiber, Am. J. Med. Sci. 263, 473-480 (1972)). Delayed plasmaclearance of radiolabeled vitamin B12 in iron deficiency anemia may be aconsequence of decreased uptake of vitamin B12 by tissues as a result ofdiminished erythropoeisis (Cook & Valberg, Blood 25, 335-344 (1965)).Because of the known role of erythrocytes in delivering cobalamin andother vitamins to tissues (Sorrell et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 24,924-929 (1971)), one may conclude that any anemia associated withdiminished erythropoiesis and/or low erythrocyte counts can induce astate of functional cobalamin deficiency. Moreover, some anemias arecaused by or associated with folate deficiency; folate supplementationin the absence of cobalamin is known to exacerbate the neuropathology ofcobalamin deficiency. The composition of the present invention istherefore directed to the treatment of all forms of anemia associatedwith cobalamin deficiency, diminished erythropoiesis and/or lowerythrocyte counts, and especially to the treatment of anemiascomplicated by coexisting folate deficiency, such as SCD (Carmel &Johnson, op. cit.) and thalassemia (Kumar et al., Am. J. Clin. Pathol.84, 668-671 (1985)).

[0048] Treatment with cobalamin, and therefore with the composition ofthe invention, may be beneficial in conditions associated with elevatedlevels of apo-transcobalamin II, such as Gaucher's disease (Gilbert &Weinreb, N. Engl. J. Med. 295, 1096-1101 (1976)) and also autoimmuneconditions (Frater-Schroder et al., Lancet 2, 238-239 (1978); Gimsing etal., Scand. J. Rheumatol. 11, 1-4 (1982)). Autoimmune disorderstreatable with cobalamin, and therefore with the composition of theinvention, include rheumatoid arthritis (Vreugdenhil et al., Ann. Rheum.Dis. 49, 93-98 (1990); Yamashiki et al., J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 37,173-182 (1992)), multiple sclerosis (Reynolds et al., Arch. Neurol. 48,808-811 (1991); Kira et al., Intern. Med. 33, 82-86 (1994)), vitiligo(Montes et al., Cutis 50, 39-42 (1992)), psoriasis (Stingily, Miss.Doctor 32, 222-223 (1955)) and lupus erythematosus (Molad et al., Am. J.Med. 88, 141-144 (1990); Stingily, Miss. Doctor, op. cit.), amongothers.

[0049] Other conditions treatable with cobalamin, and therefore with thecompositions of the invention, include disorders of carbohydratemetabolism such as diabetes mellitus (Takahashi et al., Diabetes Res.Clin. Pract. 25, 13-17 (1994); Ralli et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.15, 898 (1955)), glucose intolerance of various etiologies (Hadnagy etal., Int. Z. Vitaminforsch. 33, 141-150 (1963)), alcoholism (Dobbins,U.S. Pat. No. 4,918,102 (4/17/90); Kanazawa & Herbert, Lab. Invest. 53,108-110 (1985)), cystic fibrosis (Hardin et al., Diabetes L4, Suppl. 1,200A (1995); Lindemans et al., Acta Paediatr. Scand. 74, 795-796(1985)), and the disorder of insulin resistance referred to as SyndromeX (Reaven, Diabetes 37, 1595-1607 (1988); Jackson, Diabetes Care 13,Suppl. 2, 9-19 (1990)), which is associated with Type II diabetes,hypertension, obesity, coronary artery disease and age-related glucoseintolerance. Atherosclerosis including coronary artery disease may begenerally amenable to treatment with the composition of the invention(Nath & Saikia, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 79, 216-233 (1959); Olszewski etal., Atherosclerosis 75, 1-6 (1989); Olszewski et al., ibid. 88, 97-98(1991)), as may other disorders of lipid and/or homocysteine metabolism.In particular, the composition of the invention is applicable to thetreatment of homocysteine-related vascular occlusive disease such asdiabetic retinopathy (Neugebauer et al., Lancet 349, 473-474 (1997)) andarterial and venous thrombosis (Harpel et al., J. Nutr. 126, 1285S-1289S(1996)).

[0050] A further application of the composition of the invention is inthe treatment of various neuropathies and demyelinating conditionsrelated to cobalamin deficiency. Administration of cobalamin, andtherefore of the composition of the invention, may be effective againstdiseases and disease states characterized by or associated withneuropathy, such as diabetic neuropathy (Tanaka et al., in DiabeticNeuropathy (Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1982), 114-119); Yaqub et al.,Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 24, 105-111 (1992)), AIDS-related neuropathy(Kieburtz et al., Arch. Neurol. 48, 312-314 (1991)), uremic neuropathy(Taniguchi et al., Clin. Ther. 92, 607-614 (1987)), leprous neuropathyand the deficiency neuropathy of pellagra (Bedi et al., J. Assoc.Physicians India 21, 473-479 (1973)), Leber's hereditary opticneuropathy (Rizzo, Neurology 45, 11-16 (1995)) and other cases of opticneuritis (Heaton, Proc. Nutr. Soc. 19, 100-105 (1960)), as well ascertain instances of tinnitus (Shemesh et al., Am. J. Otolaryngol. 14,94-99 (1993)) and orthostatic hypotension (Lossos & Argov, J. Am.Geriatr. Soc., 39, 601-602 (1991)). Similarly, demyelinating conditionsresulting from cobalamin deficiency may be more effectively treated withthe composition of the invention, as may a number of diseases or diseasestates which are characterized by or associated with demyelinatingconditions. These diseases or disease states include the myelopathiesassociated with AIDS (Kieburtz et al., Arch. Neurol. 48, 312-314(1991)), multiple sclerosis (Reynolds et al., Arch. Neurol. 48, 808-811(1991); Kira et al., Intern. Med. 3, 82-86 (1994)), and certainpostinfectious and postvaccinal neuropathies such as Guillain-Barresyndrome and viral encephalomyelitis, for which experimental allergicneuritis and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis are animal models(Inada et al., in Vitamin B12 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1979),1017-1018).

[0051] Cobalamin is known to play an important role in maintainingmitochondrial integrity (Reddi & Nath, J. Vitaminol. 17, 101-104 (1971))and, conversely, cobalamin deficiency is thought to be a metabolictrigger which can precipitate the symptomatology of mitochondrialdisease (Rizzo, Neurology 45, 11-16 (1995)). In view of these facts, thecomposition of the invention can also be applied to the treatment ofmitochondrial disorders and other deficiencies of cellularbioenergetics, including apoptotic conditions (Richter et al., FEBSLett. 378, 107-110 (1996)), hypoxia/ischemia and variousneurodegenerative diseases (Davolio & Greenamyre, Neurosci. Lett. 192,29-32 (1995); Beal, Ann. Neurol. 38, 357-366 (1995)). Indeed, cobalamindeficiency has often been found in conjunction with primary degenerativedementia such as Alzheimer's (Karnaze & Carmel, Arch. Intern. Med. 147,429-431 (1987)), and effective treatment with cobalamin has beenreported (Ikeda et al., Clin. Ther. 14, 426-437 (1992)). Similarly,Down's syndrome, which eventually manifests a neuropathologyindistinguishable from that of Alzheimer's, is associated with cobalamindeficiency (Howell et al., Scand. J. Haemat. 11, 140-147 (1973)) and maybe treated effectively with a regimen incorporating cobalamin (Harrellet al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 574-578 (1981)). Cobalamin mayalso be effective in treating vascular dementia, as judged from studiesconducted with an animal model (Minami et al., Biogenic Amines 8, 33-52(1991)). Other neurodegenerative conditions have also been associatedwith cobalamin deficiency (Bauer & Heinrich, in Vitamin B12 undIntrinsic Factor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1957), 499-509) orhave been reported to be ameliorated by cobalamin therapy (Levin, Am. J.Digest. Dis. 22, 96-97 (1955)). The composition of the present inventionis therefore directed to the treatment of neurodegenerative conditionsincluding amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer's, Down's,Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, as well as to the treatment ofany form of glutamatergic excitotoxicity (Yamamoto et al., Eur. J.Pharmacol. 281, 335-340 (1995)) or mitochondrial dysfunction (Beal, Ann.Neurol. 38, 357-366 (1995)) which may underlie these conditions.

[0052] In another application, the composition of the invention can beused to treat cognitive, affective, psychological and psychiatricdisturbances associated with cobalamin deficiency (Lindenbaum et al., N.Engl. J. Med. 318, 1720-1728 (1988)), including obsessive-compulsivedisorder (Hermesh et al., Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 78, 8-10 (1988)),attention deficit disorder (Robin, Semaine hop. Paris 30, 4129-4132(1954)) and related conditions of learning disability coupled withaggressive behavior (Schrauzer et al., Biol. Tr. Element Res. 34,161-176 (1992)). The present composition may also be beneficial intreating schizophrenia (Regland et al., J. Neural Transm. 98, 143-152(1994); Joshi et al., J. Orthomol. Psychiatry 9, 35-40 (1980)),AIDS-related dementia (Herzlich & Schiano, J. Intern. Med. 233, 495-497(1993)) and AIDS-impaired cognitive functioning (Shor-Posner et al.,Arch. Neurol. 5, 195-198 (1995)).

[0053] In yet another application, the composition of the invention maybe used to treat endocrine dysfunctions related to cobalamin deficiency,such as thyrotoxicosis (Alperin et al., Blood 36, 632-641 (1970);Kasbekar et al., Biochem. J. 72, 374-383 (1959)) and excessiveproduction of corticosteroids (Mgongo et al., Reprod. Nutr. Develop. 24,845-854 (1984); Feng & Meites, Fed. Proc. 14, 47 (1955)). In particular,the antagonism by cobalamin of various steroidal effects suggests theuse of the composition of the invention in the treatment of chronicstress, where corticosteroid levels are generally elevated. Cobalamin,and therefore the composition of the present invention, may also beuseful in the treatment of hypocorticism when coadministered withsteroids (Ferrutti & Speranza, Minerva Ginecol. 34, 619-623 (1982)).Moreover, the composition of the invention is also directed to thetreatment of osteoporosis associated with cobalamin deficiency (Melton &Kochman, Metabolism 43, 468-469 (1994); Kim et al., Metabolism 45,1443-1446 (1996)), whether or not such deficiency is accompanied byendocrine dysfunction or excessive administration of hormones.

[0054] In a further application, the composition of the invention isapplicable to the treatment of infertility in both males (Blair, Lancet1, 49-50 (1968)) and females (Menachem et al., Am. J. Hematol. 40, 152(1994)), and to the treatment of reproductive disorders such asrecurrent miscarriage (Steegers-Theunissen et al., Fertil. Steril. 60,1006-1010 (1993)), neural tube defects (Mills et al., Lancet 345,149-151 (1995)) and congenital heart defects (Rosenquist et al., Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 15227-15232 (1996)) which may be promoted bycobalamin deficiency (Adams et al., Teratology 51, 311-317 (1995)).Cobalamin, and therefore the composition of the invention, may also begenerally effective in the prophylaxis of birth defects induced by drugsand teratogens (Mann & Gautieri, Lancet 1, 1451-1452 (1973); Elmazar etal., Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 18, 389-394 (1992)).

[0055] In another application, the composition of the invention may beused to treat impairments of the immune system associated with cobalamindeficiency, such as deficiencies in antibody production (van Dommelen etal., Acta Med. Scand. 174, 193-200 (1963); Fata et al., Ann. Intern.Med. 124, 299-304 (1996)), in T-cell counts (Kubota et al., Am. J.Hematol. 24, 221-223 (1987)) and in microbicidal activity of neutrophils(Skacel & Chanarin,.Br. J. Haematol. 55, 203-215 (1983)) and macrophages(Chanarin & Stephenson, J. Clin. Pathol. 41, 759-762 (1988)). Cobalamin,and therefore the composition of the invention, may be especially usefulin the prevention or treatment of mycobacterial infections, such astuberculosis or leprosy (Chanarin & Stephenson, op. cit.). The presentcomposition is also applicable to the treatment of retroviral infectionand conditions associated with retroviral infections, including HIVinfection and AIDS (Baum et al., AIDS 92, 1051-1056 (1995); Weinberg etal., Blood 86, 1281-1287 (1995)), where it is expected to be of evengreater efficacy than free cobalamin in increasing CD4+T-cell counts andin inhibiting viral infectivity.

[0056] In yet another application, the composition of the invention canbe used as an antitumor agent (Tsao et al., Pathobiology 58, 292-296(1990); Tsao & Myashita, Pathobiology 61, 104-108 (1993)). The presentcomposition may also be used to treat various premalignant lesionsassociated with cobalamin deficiency, either alone (Brinton et al., Br.J. Cancer 59, 810-813 (1989)) or in combination with other methyl donorssuch as folate (Heimburger et al., JAMA 259, 1525-1530 (1988); Ran etal., Blood 82, Suppl. 1, 532a (1993)).

[0057] In a further application, the inventive composition can be usedalone or in combination with various antioxidants to treat imbalances ofredox homeostasis (Jocelyn, Biochem. J. 77, 363-368 (1960); Mueller &Will, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 3, 30-44 (1955)) and other abnormalities ofantioxidant metabolism (Cox et al., Clin. Sci. 17, 681-692 (1958))associated with cobalamin deficiency. More generally, the presentcomposition may also be applied to the treatment of any conditionsassociated with oxidative stress, inasmuch as oxidasive stress caninduce a functional cobalamin deficiency by damaging or destroying thecorrin ring of vitamin B12. Examples of conditions which can be treatedby administration of the present composition alone or in combinationwith antioxidants include methylmercury toxicity (Sood et al., Cel. Mol.Biol. 39, 213-219 (1993)), heart disease and cataract (Harding et al.,Biochem. Soc. Trans. 24, 881-883 (1996)) and retinal degeneration ofvarious kinds, including diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration andBatten's disease (Agostinho et al., FASEB J. 11, 154-163 (1997)). Sincethe production of free radicals in skeletal muscle is a factor limitingendurance during prolonged exercise (Reid et al., J. Clin. Invest. 94,2468-2474 (1994); Leeuwenburgh & Ji, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 316,941-949 (1995)), the composition of the invention may also findapplication as an enhancer of athletic endurance (cf. Singh et al., Med.Sci. Sports Exerc. 25, 328-334 (1993)).

[0058] In addition to the aforementioned uses of cobalamin, andtherefore of the compositions of the invention, in treating conditionsassociated with cobalamin deficiency, cobalamin is known to be effectivein a number of applications regardless of whether any recognizeddeficiency exists. In view of the enhanced cellular uptake of thecomposition of the invention relative to the cellular uptake of freecobalamin, the present composition is expected to be a superior means oftreating such conditions as cyanide poisoning (Zerbe & Wagner, Crit.Care Med. 21, 465-467 (1993)) and nitric oxide toxicity (Greenberg etal., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 273, 257-265 (1995)). Nitric oxidetoxicity plays a pathogenic role in sepsis, endotoxemia and systemicinflammatory response syndrome (Greenberg et al., op. cit.), andtherefore the composition of the present invention can be used to treatthese conditions and to mitigate their attendant hypotension andmortality. The composition of the invention may also be useful asadjunctive therapy when coadministered with inhaled nitric oxide or withnitric oxide donors. Furthermore, excess nitric oxide production hasbeen linked with autoimmune disorders, chronic inflammatory diseases,neurodegenerative diseases and AIDS, and also with migraine andhistamine-induced headache (Olesen et al., NeuroReport 4, 1027-1030(1993); Lassen et al., NeuroReport 6, 1475-1479 (1995)), stroke (Nowickiet al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 204, 339-340 (1991)), viral pneumonia (Akaikeet al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 23, 2448-2453 (1996)), and viral andbacterial neurological diseases such as meningitis (Zheng et al., J.Virol. 67, 5786-5791 (1993); Koedel et al, Ann. Neurol. 37, 313-323(1995)). Cobalamin, and therefore the composition of the invention, isexpected to be of specific benefit in the treatment of all suchconditions of excess nitric oxide production.

[0059] Since cobalamin combines with superoxide (Bayston et al., J. Am.Chem. Soc. 91, 2775-2779 (1969)) in much the same manner that it doeswith cyanide or nitric oxide, cobalamin may likewise mitigate conditionsof superoxide toxicity. Superoxide is often coreleased with nitric oxideand has been implicated with nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of AIDSand of various autoimmune, chronic inflammatory, ischemic andneurodegenerative diseases. Excess production of superoxide has alsobeen linked with infection by viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungalpathogens (Fuchs et al., Med. Hypotheses 36, 60-64 (1991)), induction ofmuscle wasting in cachexia (Buck & Chojkier, EMBO J. 15, 1753-1765(1996)), photodamage to skin (Darr & Fridovich, J. Invest. Dermatol.102, 671-675 (1994)), and the generation of clastogenic factors (Emerit,Free Radic. Biol. Med. 16, 99-109 (1994)). Clastogenic factors caninduce chromosomal aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges, DNA strandbreakage, gene mutations and eventual malignancy in a variety ofpathogenic situations, including exposure to ionizing radiation,viruses, tumor-promoting chemicals, asbestos, and herbicides such asparaquat, and in such hereditary chromosomal breakage syndromes asataxia telangiectasia, Bloom's syndrome and Fanconi's anemia (Emerit,op. cit.). The composition of the present invention is directed towardthe treatment of all such consequences of superoxide toxicity.

[0060] In similar fashion, cobalamin can be used to catalyze thenonenzymatic oxidation of carbon monoxide (Bayston & Winfield, J.Catalysis 9, 217-224 (1967)) and sulfite (Jacobsen et al., J. AllergyClin. Immunol. 73, 135 (1984)). Moreover, the neurotoxicity of carbonmonoxide poisoning has been recently linked with excess production ofboth nitric oxide and superoxide (Ischiropoulos et al., J. Clin. Invest.97, 2260-2267 (1996)). Cobalamin, and therefore the composition of theinvention, is thus applicable to the treatment or prophylaxis of allconditions associated with carbon monoxide toxicity, including smokingin adults and pediatric conditions such as fetal growth retardation,sudden infant death syndrome (Hutter & Blair, Med. Hypotheses 46, 1-4(1996)) and related conditions (Stevenson et al., J. Pediatrics 94,956-958 (1979)). Cobalamin, and therefore the present composition, islikewise applicable to the treatment or prophylaxis of sulfite toxicity,including such conditions as allergic reactions to sulfites (Anibarro etal., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 90, 103-109 (1992)). Moreover, cobalaminhas been reported to mediate the dehalogenation of various halogenatedpesticides (Schrauzer & Katz, Bioinorg. Chem. 9, 123-143 (1978)),environmental toxins (Assaf-Anid et al., Appl. Env. Microbiol. 58,1057-1060 (1992)) and solvents (Krone et al., Biochemistry 30, 2713-2719(1991)), an effect which may account for the protection afforded bycobalamin in cases of carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic injury(Kasbekar et al., Biochem. J. 30, 384-389 (1959)). The composition ofthe present invention is thus directed also toward the treatment orprophylaxis of toxicity caused by exposure to halogenated hydrocarbonsand to the enhancement of environmental bioremediation of halogenatedhydrocarbons by anaerobic bacteria (Hashsham et al., Environ. Sci.Technol. 29, 2856-2863 (1995)).

[0061] In additional applications independent of the presence ofcobalamin deficiency, the composition of the invention can beadministered to treat cases of asthma (Crocket, Acta Allergol. 11,261-268 (1957)) and dermatitis (Simon, J. Allergy 2, 183-185 (1951)).Moreover, the known properties of cobalamin as an antagonist ofhistamine (Ata, in Vitamin B12 und Intrinsic Factor (Stuttgart:Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1957), 543-553) suggest the use of the presentcomposition as an antihistamine in the treatment of allergy,anaphylactic shock and other conditions. In particular, the activity ofcobalamin in mitigating the toxic effects of histamine suggests a novelapplication of cobalamin, and therefore of the composition of theinvention, in the treatment of vascular headache induced by consumptionof wine, cheese and other histamine-containing food and drink (Jarisch &Wantke, Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 110, 7-12 (1996)). Furthermore, thecomposition of the invention can also be applied to the treatment ofoversedation due to intoxication with sedatives and/or alcohol (Newbold,Med. Hypotheses 30, 1-3 (1989)). In view of the efficacy of cobalamin,and therefore of the present composition, in treating intoxication withalcohol, in promoting mental acuity in general, and in treating allergicreactions due to histamine and sulfites in wine and other alcoholicbeverages, the present composition may be especially useful inameliorating a broad range of toxic reactions associated with alcoholconsumption.

[0062] The present composition can also be used to accelerate recoveryfrom anorexia nervosa by enhancing weight gain, normalizinggastrointestinal function, alleviating latent fatigue and increasingmental performance (Korkina et al., Zhur. Nevropat. Psikhiat. 89, 82-87(1989)). In related applications the composition can be administered torelieve fatigue and promote well-being even in nominally healthyindividuals (Ellis & Nasser, Br. J. Nutr. 30, 279-283 (1973)), and toimprove cognitive ability and physical stamina by enhancing thebiosynthesis of choline and acetylcholine (Sasaki et al., Pharmacol.Biochem. Behav. 43, 635-639 (1992)). The present composition can also beadministered to normalize the entrainment of circadian rhythms inpersons suffering from sleep disorders, possibly by increasing thesensitivity of the circadian clock (Honma et al., Experientia 48,716-720 (1992)). Likewise, the composition can be administered to adjustthe circadian rhythms of individuals suffering from “jet lag.”

[0063] Additional applications of the composition of the inventioninclude treatment of viral conditions and potentiation ofimmunostimulation by interferon. Cobalamin has been shown to be usefulin promoting recovery from viral conditions such as hepatitis (Kelemenet al., Int. Z. Vitaminforsch. 31, 307-316 (1961)), poliomyelitis (Leroy& Robin, Semaine hop. Paris 31, 1097-1098 (1955)), and herpeticeruptions such as those due to shingles (MacLatchy, Br. J. Ophthal. 40,762-764 (1956); King, N. Z. Med. J. 105, 135 (1992)). In view of thereported efficacy of cobalamin in treating both shingles (i.e., thepostinfectious reemergence of herpes zoster) and also poliomyelitis,cobalamin and therefore the composition of the invention are expected tobe useful in the treatment of postpolio syndrome. In treating viralinfections the composition of the invention can be used either alone orin combination with substances such as interferons. Various interferonshave been used in the treatment of viral infections such as those due toherpes zoster and HIV, and in the treatment of cancer and multiplesclerosis as well. Recently it has been shown that cobalamin canpotentiate the immunomodulation induced by interferon (Medenica et al.,Blood 86, Suppl. 1, 850a (1995)). In the latter study vitamin B12 wascoadministered with interferon to patients suffering from prostatecancer, colon cancer or herpes zoster. As compared to controls receivingonly interferon, treatment with cobalamin (and by inference with thecomposition of the invention) can increase serum interferon levels,decrease levels of natural interferon inhibitory factor, enhanceimmunocyte activity and reduce muscle pain which arises as a side effectof interferon treatment.

[0064] With regard to its activity in relieving pain, vitamin B12 haslong been recognized as an effective analgesic either alone (Surtees &Hughes, Lancet 1, 439-441 (1954)) or in combination with other Bvitamins (Leuschner, Arzneim.-Forsch./Drug Res. 4, 114-115 (1992)).Moreover, adenosylcobalamin has been recently shown to potentiate theantinociceptive effects of various opioids such as morphine andenkephalin (Villanueva et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther: 257, 1198-1202(1991)). Also, treatment of osteoarthritis with both cobalamin andfolate has been reported to result in fewer tender hand joints, ascompared to treatment with prescribed nonsteroidal antiinflammatorydrugs (Flynn et al., J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 13, 351-356 (1994)); thebeneficial effects of cobalamin and folate therapy in osteoarthritis maybe mediated in part by enhanced production of S-adenosylmethionine(diPadova, Am. J. Med. 8, Suppl. 5A, 60-65 (1987)) as well as by theantinociceptive effects of cobalamin. These results suggest the use ofthe composition of the invention as an analgesic in general and as atreatment for osteoarthritis, either alone or in combination with othervitamins or medications.

[0065] In another application independent of the presence of cobalamindeficiency, the composition of the invention can be used to promoteepithelial cell growth and the healing of aphthous ulcers and otherlesions in mucosal tissues (Ansell, Lancet 2, 994 (1962)). The presentcomposition can also be applied to enhance recovery of cardiac muscle inmyocardial infarction (Nikolaeva et al., Circ. Res. 35, Suppl. III,202-213 (1974)), and to promote wound healing in general (Findlay, Proc.Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 82, 492-495 (1953)). In view of the enhancement ofinsulin sensitivity promoted by cobalamin administration and the factthat insulin can be used to treat severe burns (Davies, New Scientist12/2/95, p. 20), the present composition may be useful for potentiatingthe anabolic effects of insulin during recovery from burns and othertraumatic injury. The enhanced cellular uptake demonstrated by thecomposition of the invention renders it especially useful when appliedtopically, alone or with accompanying oral administration, to promotethe healing of skin conditions including burns, sunburn, wounds, ulcers,lacerations, herpetic eruptions, psoriasis, dermatoses and eczema, amongother conditions. A further application for the composition of theinvention is in the detoxification of poisoning caused by such heavymetals as cadmium (Couce et al., J. Inorg. Biochem. 41, 1-6 (1991)),lead (Kleinsorge et al., Zschr. inn. Med. 9, 903-906 (1954)) and mercury(e.g., methylmercury, Sood et al., Cell. Mol. Biol. 39, 213-219 (1993))and such non-metals as selenium (Chen & Whanger, Toxicol. Appl.Pharmacol. 118, 65-72 (1993)). Finally, cobalamin and therefore thecomposition of the invention may be generally useful in the treatment ofconvulsions caused by various agents and medications (Ata, in VitaminB12 und Intrinsic Factor (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1957),544-553) and in the treatment of febrile convulsions (Osifo et al., J.Neurol. Sci. 68, 185-190 (1985)).

[0066] A further application of the present composition is as acomponent of a diagnostic assay for determining cobalamin deficiency,even in the absence of hematological abnormalities or in the presence ofhigh serum cobalamin levels. This application is based on the findingthat the extent of uptake of cobalamin in the form of a composition ofthe invention relative to the extent of uptake of free cobalamin appearsto be directly correlated with the severity of the cobalamin deficiencyand/or defect in cobalamin binding and transport. To assay for cobalamindeficiency, a blood sample is withdrawn from an individual and placed incontact with the composition. The extent of cellular uptake of cobalaminfrom the composition relative to cellular uptake of free cobalamin isthen determined. Specifically, a blood sample is obtained and dividedinto two fractions. Cobalamin in the form of a composition of theinvention and free cobalamin are each added to separate fractions.Following a period of time sufficient to allow cellular uptake ofcobalamin, the samples are centrifuged. Red blood cells (RBC) are thenextracted from the sample and lysed. The amount of cobalamin taken up byRBC in each of the samples is then determined, such as by radioisotopedilution assay or microbiological assay, for example. The extent ofenhanced uptake of cobalamin in the form of the composition of theinvention relative to cobalamin alone indicates the severity of thedeficiency or defect. Alternatively, a similar procedure can be carriedout using cells other than RBC extracted from an individual, such asbone marrow aspirates obtained from biopsy or mucosal cells obtainedfrom buccal scraping, for example. Such a procedure may be useful fordetermining the presence of a cobalamin deficiency localized to specificcells or tissues. For general purposes, however, the form of the assayutilizing RBC is preferred.

[0067] Administration of a composition of the present invention to anindividual can be carried out using known procedures at dosages and forperiods of time effective to result in the desired therapeutic response,such as an increase in depressed serum or tissue cobalamin levels and/orclinical remission of symptoms. An active amount of the composition in aphysiologically acceptable carrier can be administered orally as a solidor liquid, sublingually, intranasally, topically or by injection. Thecompositions of the invention can be administered in slow release forms,such as by depot injection (e.g., in a carrier which slows theabsorption of the inventive composition) or by compounding in asustained release tablet. Effective amounts of the composition of theinvention will vary according to factors such as the age, sex and weightof the individual. Dosage regimens may be adjusted to provide theoptimum therapeutic response. For example, for the treatment ofcobalamin deficiency in an individual the loading dose of cobalamintypically ranges from 1000 μg per day to 1000 μg per week, administeredintramuscularly. Because crystalline cobalamin may be inefficientlyabsorbed orally, especially in the absence of intrinsic factor, theoptimal therapeutic dose recommended for oral administration is usuallyat least 1000 μg per day. Given the increased uptake of the compositionrelative to free cobalamin, smaller dosages and/or alternative means ofadministration may be available. For example, the composition may beadministered orally or sublingually at a dosage of 100 μg of cobalaminper day. A therapeutic response may be achieved with dosage as small as5 to 50 μg of cobalamin daily, administered orally or sublingually.

[0068] The composition of the invention may be combined with otherfactors to provide increased therapeutic effectiveness. Such factors mayinclude vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and/or other biomolecules,drugs, medicinals, herbal preparations and microorganisms, wherevercompatible with the composition of the invention. For example, thecomposition of the invention may be combined or coadministered withfolates to treat osteoarthritis (Flynn et al., J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 13,351-356 (1994)), prevent neural tube defects (Mills et al., Lancet 345,149-151 (1995)), treat premalignant lesions (Ran et al., Blood 82,Suppl. 1, 532a (1993); Heimburger et al., JAMA 259, 1525-1530 (1988)),or prevent exacerbation of cobalamin-deficient neuropathology induced byfolate supplementation (Carmel & Johnson, Blood 86 Suppl. 1, 644a(1995)). The composition of the invention may also be combined orcoadministered with other B vitamins to treat diabetic neuropathy(Sakitama et al., J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 35, 95-99 (1989)) or providepain relief (Leuschner, Arzneim.-Forsch./Drug Res. 42, 114-115 (1992)),and with other vitamins and nutrients to treat atheroscleroticconditions (Olszewski et al., Atherosclerosis 75, 1-6 (1989); Olszewski,ibid. 88, 97-98 (1991)), vitiligo (Montes et al., Cutis 50, 39-42(1992)) and Down's syndrome (Harrell et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA78, 574-578 (1981)). In other examples, the composition of the inventionmay be combined or coadministered with interferon to enhanceimmunomodulation (Medenica et al., Blood 86, Suppl. 1, 850a (1995)),with opioids such as morphine and enkephalins to potentiateantinociception (Villanueva et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 257,1198-1202 (1991)), and with folates and fluoropyrimidines to potentiateantitumor effects (Tisman et al., Clin. Res. 33, 459A (1985)). Thepresent composition may also be combined with microorganisms such asBifidobacteria to promote immunoenhancement (De Simone et al., Int. J.Immunother. 2, 23-28 (1993)) and inhibit carcinogenesis (Pierra et al.,Cancer Res. 57, 225-228 (1997)), among other effects. The composition ofthe invention and additional factors may be administered together as asingle composition or simultaneously or sequentially in two or moreseparate compositions.

[0069] To administer a composition of the invention by other thanparenteral administration, it may be necessary to coat the compositionor coadminister the composition with a material to prevent itsinactivation. For example, the composition may be administered to anindividual in an appropriate diluent or in an appropriate carrier suchas liposomes. Pharmaceutically acceptable diluents include solutions ofglycerol, polyalcohols, saline and aqueous buffer solutions. Withoutwishing to be bound by theory, the inventors believe that in certainembodiments saline solution can decrease the efficacy of thecompositions of the invention. Thus, the diluent is preferably selectedto ensure maximal activity for the inventive complex. In certainpreferred embodiments, the diluent is not a saline solution, e.g., doesnot comprise significant amounts of salt. Liposomes includewater-in-oil-in-water CGF emulsions as well as conventional liposomes(Strejan et al., J. Neuroimmunol. 7, 2741 (1984)).

[0070] Dispersions for parenteral or intraperitoneal administration canbe prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols and mixturesthereof, and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use,these preparations may contain a preservative to prevent the growth ofmicroorganisms.

[0071] Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use includesterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions andsterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectablesolutions or dispersion. In general, the inventive compositions areappreciably soluble in water, and sterile aqueous solutions arepreferred. In all cases, the composition must be sterile and must befluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stableunder the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preservedagainst the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria andfungi. The carrier can be a solvent or medium containing, for example,water, ethanol, polyols (such as glycerol, propylene glycol, liquidpolyethylene glycol and the like), suitable mixtures thereof andvegetable oils. It is believed that in certain embodiments, ethanol candegrade the efficacy of the inventive compositions. Thus, in somepreferred embodiments, the carrier medium does not comprise significantamounts of ethanol. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example,by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of therequired particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use ofsurfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achievedby various antibacterial and antifungal agents. In many cases, it willbe preferable to include isotonic agents, e.g., sugars and polyalcoholssuch as mannitol and sorbitol, in the composition. Prolonged absorptionof the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in thecomposition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminummonostearate or gelatin.

[0072] For further examples of pharmaceutical formulations suitable foradministration of the compositions of the invention, see, e.g.,Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th ed. (Easton, Pa.: MackPublishing Company, 1985).

[0073] Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating thecomposition in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination ofingredients enumerated above, as required. Generally, dispersions areprepared by incorporating the composition into a sterile vehicle whichcontains a dispersion medium and the required other ingredients fromthose enumerated above.

[0074] The composition may be orally administered, for example, with aninert diluent or an assimilable edible carrier. The composition andother ingredients may also be enclosed in a hard or soft shell gelatincapsule, compressed into tablets, or incorporated directly into theindividual's diet. For oral therapeutic administration, the compositionmay be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of ingestibletablets, buccal tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions,syrups, wafers and the like. The amount of active compound (i.e.,cobalamin) in such therapeutically useful compositions is such that asuitable dosage will be obtained.

[0075] The tablets, troches, pills, capsules and the like may alsocontain a binder, an excipient, a lubricant or a sweetening agent.Various other materials may be present as coatings or to otherwisemodify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, tablets,pills or capsules may be coated with shellac, sugar or both. Of course,any material used in preparing any dosage unit form should bepharmaceutically pure and substantially nontoxic in the amountsemployed.

[0076] As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includesany appropriate solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial andantifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents and the like.The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substancesis well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional medium oragent is incompatible with the active compound, use thereof incompositions of the invention is contemplated.

[0077] It is especially advantageous to formulate compositions of theinvention in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformityof dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discreteunits suited as unitary dosages for the individuals to be treated. Eachdosage contains a predetermined quantity of active compound (i.e.,cobalamin) calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect inassociation with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specificationfor the novel dosage unit forms of the invention is dependent on theunique characteristics of the composition and the particular therapeuticeffect to be achieved. Dosages are determined by reference to the usualdose and manner of administration of the ingredients.

[0078] The invention is further illustrated by the following,non-limiting examples. The contents of all references cited in thisapplication are hereby incorporated by reference.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of Compositions of Cobalamin

[0079] A composition of the invention in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4was prepared by dissolving 5 grams of crystalline cyanocobalamin, 1.08grams of L-lysine and 2.16 grams of L-glutamine (all from Sigma ChemicalCo., St. Louis, Mo.) at room temperature in 1 liter of distilled water.The resulting stock solution was stored under sterile conditions for aperiod of three weeks. Aliquots of the resulting composition (CN-Cbx)were then withdrawn in sterile fashion. Some aliquots were mixed withfolates, minerals or both; others were further diluted with distilledwater or with solutions of glycerol to yield compositions containing 1mg cyanocobalamin per ml., or crystallized to yield the composition indried form. Additional compositions in the molar ratio 1:2:4 wereprepared utilizing hydroxocobalamin instead of cyanocobalamin.

EXAMPLE 2 Analysis of Cellular Uptake of Cobalamin

[0080] Blood was drawn from three subjects, one presumptively normal(N), one with recurrent gastritis of moderate severity (G) and one witha chronic intracellular vitamin B12 deficiency refractory toconventional therapy (D). Blood samples were divided in half and eachhalf incubated separately at 37° C. with aliquots of cyanocobalamin(CN-Cb1) or cobalamin in the form of a composition with lysine andglutamine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4 as described above (CN-Cbx).Each solution was calculated to contain 200 μg of cyanocobalamin.Aliquots of equal size of each solution were also added to salineblanks. After two hours red blood cells (RBC) were separated bycentrifugation and washed in phosphate-buffered saline. Contents of theRBC were then extracted in warm ethanol, and cobalamin levels of eachsample and of each blank were determined by radioisotope dilution assay(RIDA).

[0081] The relative uptake of cobalamin for each sample was determinedby dividing the measured cobalamin content of the sample by the measuredcobalamin content of the respective blank. The ratios of relative uptakefor samples incubated with CN-Cbl versus CN-Cbx for each individual werecalculated, and the results expressed in percentage form. In all threecases this percentage was positive, indicating that RBC take upcobalamin in the form of the present invention preferentially over freecobalamin. The actual results for the three subjects are as follows: N,5% enhanced uptake; G, 16% enhanced uptake; and D, 62% enhanced uptake.Thus, the extent of the enhancement of cobalamin uptake from thecomposition may be directly correlated with the severity of knownvitamin B12 deficiency and/or defect in vitamin B12 binding ortransport.

EXAMPLE 3

[0082] Blood was drawn from two subjects, one with untreated attentiondeficit disorder (A) and one with a progressive cardiovascular diseaseundetected at that time (C). Blood samples were centrifuged, plasma andbuffy coat discarded, and the RBC washed and resuspended inphosphate-buffered saline at equalized hematocrit. Suspensions of RBCwere divided in half and each half incubated separately at 37° C. withaliquots of CN-Cbl or CN-Cbx as described previously. Each solution wascalculated to contain 100 ng of cyanocobalamin. Aliquots of equal sizeof each solution were also added to saline blanks. After 1½ hours RBCwere centrifuged and the supernatant separated. Cobalamin levels of thesupernatant of each sample and of each saline blank were determined bymicrobiological assay (Vitamin Diagnostics, Lawrence Harbor, N.J.).

[0083] The uptake of cobalamin by RBC for each sample was inferred bysubtracting the measured cobalamin content of each supernatant from themeasured cobalamin content of the appropriate blank. The relative uptakeof cobalamin by RBC was then determined by dividing the inferred RBCuptake by the cobalamin content of the respective blank. The ratios ofrelative uptake for samples incubated with CN-Cb1 versus CN-Cbx werecalculated for each subject and the results expressed in percentageform. Both subjects demonstrated preferential uptake by RBC ofcobalamin, in agreement with previous results. The calculated resultswere: A, 22% enhanced uptake and C, 87% enhanced uptake. Thus, theextent of enhancement of cobalamin uptake from the composition of theinvention may be directly correlated with the severity of the presumedB12-deficiency and/or B12-deficient disease state.

EXAMPLE 4

[0084] A composition of the invention can be prepared by adding 5milligrams of crystalline cyanocobalamin, 1.08 milligrams of L-lysineand 2.16 milligrams of L-glutamine at room temperature or above to onequart whole milk (preferably milk which has been scalded and then cooledprior to addition of the above components). Yoghurt culture startercontaining dried streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricusand Lactobacillus acidophilus (available from VMC Corp., Montréal,Quebec) is then added, and the milk is stirred to provide a uniformmixture, which is then incubated at room temperature or above(preferably between about 37° and 45° C.) for 4-12 hours (e.g.,preferably about 4 hours at 45° C.) to provide yoghurt enriched in acomposition of the invention. A yoghurt so constituted for consumptionwill provide about 470 micrograms of cobalamin per 3 ounce serving.

[0085] Another yoghurt-based composition can be made by adding 250milligrams of crystalline cyanocobalamin, 67 milligrams of L-lysinemonohydrochloride 5 and 108 milligrams of L-glutamine to one quart skimmilk. The milk is cultured with lactobacilli as above, and the resultingyoghurt is dried (e.g., by freeze-drying or spray drying) to provideabout 375 micrograms of cobalamin per 200 mg of the dried product. Thedried product can be packaged, e.g., in gelatin capsules, or added toother foods. Alternatively, after the yogurt has been cultured andallowed to separate, the resulting yoghurt whey can be collected andconcentrated or dried. Yoghurt whey so enriched in a composition of theinvention may be consumed directly or incorporated into products such asfrozen yoghurt.

EXAMPLE 5

[0086] A unit dose of a composition of the invention can be formulatedas follows: about 500 million each L. acidophilus and L. bifidus, 400 μgof cyanocobalamin, 200 mg of glutamine, 62.5 mg lysinemonohydrochloride, and 50 mg fructooligosaccharides are combined in dryform and encapsulated together in a standard #0 gelatin capsule. Eachcapsule thus provides about 400 micrograms of cobalamin per dose.

[0087] The contents of all references cited herein are herebyincorporated by reference.

[0088] Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertainusing no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to thespecific procedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered tobe within the scope of this invention and are covered by the followingclaims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A composition comprising a mixture of: (a) a corrin selected from the group consisting of cobalamins and corrinoids; (b) a first amino acid having a side chain which includes a basic or positively charged moiety; and (c) . a second amino acid with an uncharged side chain which includes at least one heteroatom, wherein said composition comprises an excess by weight of the corrin relative to at least one of the first amino acid and the second amino acid.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the corrin is a cobalamin.
 3. The composition of claim 2, wherein the first amino acid is selected from the group consisting of lysine, arginine, histidine, and ornithine.
 4. The composition of claim 2, wherein the second amino acid is selected from the group consisting of glutamine, asparagine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, methionine, cysteine, hydroxyproline, serine and threonine.
 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the corrin is present in a ratio by weight of at least 2:1 relative to the first amino acid.
 6. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 7. A composition comprising a mixture of: (a) a cobalamin; (b) a first amino acid selected from the group consisting of lysine, arginine or ornithine; and (c) a second amino acid selected from the group consisting of glutamine, tyrosine, serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine, wherein said composition comprises an excess by weight of the cobalamin relative to at least one of the first or second amino acid.
 8. The composition of claim 7, wherein the first amino acid is lysine and the second amino acid is glutamine.
 9. A composition comprising a mixture in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier of: (a) cobalamin; (b) lysine, arginine, histidine or ornithine; and (c) glutamine, tyrosine, serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine, in a molar ratio of from about 1:0.1:0.1 to about 1:100:100.
 10. The composition of claim 9 comprising cobalamin, lysine and glutamine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:4.
 11. The composition of claim 9 comprising cobalamin, lysine, glutamine and tyrosine in a molar ratio of about 1:2:2:2.
 12. The composition of claim 9, wherein the composition further comprises a microorganism capable of catalyzing the formation of a cobalamin:amino acid complex.
 13. A method of increasing cellular uptake of cobalamin in the cells of a subject, comprising administering to the subject an active amount of a composition comprising a mixture of: (a) cobalamin; (b) lysine, arginine, histidine or ornithine; and (c) glutamine, tyrosine, serine, threonine, tryptophan or asparagine, in a molar ratio of from about 1:0.1:0.1 to about 1:100:100, such that cellular uptake of cobalamin in the cells of the subject is increased.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the composition comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 15. A method for treating a condition associated with cobalamin deficiency in a subject, the method comprising: administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a composition of claim 9, such that a condition associated with cobalamin deficiency in the subject is treated.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the subject is a human.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the condition is Alzheimer's disease.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein the condition is a condition associated with retroviral infection.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the condition is HIV infection. 